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A 



r GRAMMAR 



CONTAINING THE 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 



OF 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



FOR ADVANCED GRAMMAR GRADES, AND FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 
ACADEMIES, Etc. 



By WILLIAM SWINTON, 

AUTHOR OF "SWINTON'S LANGUAGE SERIES," ETC. 




NEW YORK • I • CINCINNATI • : ■ CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 






JUL ^D lauo 

2-3, ^oiT 
COPY 0* 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

Copyright, 1905, by Jean Swinton. 









PREFACE 



This text-book of English Grammar forms the advanced manual of 
Sainton's "Xew Language Series," and is designed for study in con- 
auction with the author's New School Composition* In a graded 
course on the English language it is intended to fill the place of the 
>ok known as the Progressive Grammar, That, in such a course, 
will fill that place in a manner more satisfactory than the work 
^ named may reasonably be hoped from the considerations ad- 
ced in the following paragraphs. 

At the time when the Progressive Grammar was first published 
(1872), it had become a conviction in the minds of many thought- 
ful teachers and others that .English grammar, as set forth in books 
and taught in schools, was failing to accomplish its avowed end, 
namely, " to teach the art of speaking and writing the English 
language with propriety " The Progressive Grammar was an at- 
tempt to break loose from the shackles of purely technical grammar 
—to strip it of fruitless formalism, and to introduce the constructive 
element. It may be remarked that the author's views did not then 
extend beyond that one book. Soon after, however, the experience 
of the school-room led the author to believe — as a like experience 
was leading many others to believe — that a method of language- 

* Both treatises may be had bound in one volume, under the title "Swin- 
ton's English Grammar and Composition.' 7 



IV PREFACE. 

training quite different from that mainly in vogue was necessary : 
there arose, in fact, the thought of language as one thing, and of 
grammar as another thing ; and in this view it seemed that a 
suitable apparatus of elementary instruction was yet to be sup- 
plied. This conviction took shape in the books known as Lan- 
guage Primer, Language Lessons, and School Composition. 

In the meantime, contemporaneously with the appearance of 
the successive books of the " Language Series," there came about a 
broadening and readjustment of the scheme of language-study in 
the public schools. The necessity of a progressive and graduated 
course of training in the mother-tongue, extending over some years, 
and beginning in practice and ending in theory, is now generally 
recognized and acted on ; so that, a considerable uniformity in the 
programme and method of English study being attained, it seems 
possible to adapt our book-apparatus to the work to be done in 
our schools. 

It is with the view of accomplishing this purpose that a thorough 
remodelling of Swinton's " Language Series " has been made. It is 
thought that the books now form a closely connected series, embody- 
ing a progressive course of development, the outline of which may 
be thus set forth: 

1. Language Primer — mainly practice. 

2. New Language Lessons — theory and practice (i. e., grammar and 

composition) in about equal proportion. 
( New English Grammar, ) the two studies differentiated, 
' \ New School Composition — ) but simultaneously pursued. 

In the remodelled series, the present text-book forms the Gram- 
mar, pure and simple. It presupposes a certain amount of previ- 
ous training in the theory and practice of English — presupposes, at 
least, the amount of knowledge obtainable from Swinton's Language 
Lessons, or from a similar book ; and its specific place in the cur- 






PREFACE. 



riculum is to be found in the advanced grammar grades of our 
ublic schools, though the book is also suited to the wants of 
igh schools and academies. It is earnestly recommended that the 
rammar be taken in connection with the School Composition, — 
lie author's ideal of the distribution of study being : three gram- 
mar lessons and two composition lessons per week. 
The method and the matter of the book are both so obvious that 
achers will discover its scope and character by simply turning over 
e leaves : hence no detailed exhibit of the plan seems to be called 
'or here. The author would state in a single sentence that his aim 
as been to set forth, in the light of the latest linguistic scholarship, 
e etymology and the syntax of the English language — to make 
logical, systematic, and well-ordered presentation of this great 
ubject, with a view both to intellectual development, or wit-sharp- 
ning, and to the attainment of a fair mastery of the art of speaking 
d writing our tongue. Very great care has been taken to make it 
working class-book ; and particular attention is called to the sum- 
aries, topical analyses, and written reviews. For the higher study 
of English, in its historical and comparative aspects, a good amount 
of material will be found in the Appendix, pages 237-252. 

In the preparation of this text-book the author has handled 
several hundred English grammars, all of which have been sug- 
gestive in one way or other. He must, however, acknowledge his 
indebtedness throughout to the great German works of Maetzner 
and of Koch, and to the English grammars of Morris, Ernest 
Adams, Bain, Mulligan, and Mason. It will perhaps not be amiss 
to credit to these storehouses all that is best in the material of 
this text-book; its architecture the author claims as his own. 

William Swinton. 
New Your, Auyust, 1877. 



CONTENTS. 



rum 

EDUCTION 1 

SECTION L— ETYMOLOGY 3 

I. Classification and Forms , , 3 

II. The Noun 6 

I. Definition , 6 

II. Classes of Nouns ? 

III. Grammatical Forms of the Noun 11 

I. Number, 11 ; II. Gender, 16 ; III. Case, 21 ; IV. Person, 23. 

III. The Pronoun 28 

I. Definition 28 

II. Classification and Inflection , 28 

I. Personal Pronouns, 28; II. Kelative Pronouns, 31; III. In- 
terrogative Pronouns, 82. 

IV. The Adjective 35 

I. Definition 35 

II. Classification 35 

I. Limiting Adjectives, 36 ; II. Qualifying Adjectives, 40 ; III. 
Grammatical Forms of the Adjective, 41. 

V. The Verb 48 

I. Definition 48 

II. Classification 48 

III. Verbals 52 

IV. Grammatical Forms of the Verb 53 

I. Voice, 54 ; II. Mood, 55 ; III. Tense, 57 ; IV. Moods with 
Tenses, 57; V. Number and Person, 64; VI. Conjugation, 
66; Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs, 67 ; Paradigm of 
the Regular Verbs, 71 ; Paradigm of the Irregular Verbs, 
74; Forms of Conjugation, 75; Irregular Verbs, 80. 

VI. The Adverb S5 

Definition, Classes, and Inflection 85 

VII. The Preposition 89 

VIII. The Conjunction 93 

The Interjection 95 

IX. Uses and Parsing of the Parts of Speech 98 

I. The Noun 98 

II. The Pronoun 108 

III. The Adjective 113 

IV. The Verb 118 

V. The Adverb 123 

VI. Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection 124 

Method of Abbreviated Parsing 127 

Notes on Variable Parts of Speech 130 



viii CONTENTS. 



OTAPTO SECTION II.— SYNTAX 137 

Definitions 137 

Rules of Syntax 140 

I. Subjective Relation 142 

II. Predicative Relation 145 

III. Attributive Relation 153 

IV. Complementary Relation . . 166 

V. Adverbial Relation. 175 

VI. Representative Relation 179 

VII. Connective Relation \\ 187 

VIII. Absolute and Independent Constructions D . c 194 

IX. Syntax of Verbs and Verbals. 197 



SECTION III— ANALYSIS 204 

I. Definitions and Principles 204 

I. The Sentence and its Elements 204 

II. Classes of Sentences 209 

III. Subject and Predicate 212 

IV. Adjuncts of Subject and Predicate 213 

II. Analysis of the Simple Sentence 216 

I. Theory of the Simple Sentence 216 

II. Directions for Analysis 216 

Models for Oral Analysis 218 

Models for Written Analysis 220 

III. Analysis of the Complex Sentence 223 

I. Theory of the Complex Sentence 223 

II. Directions for Analysis 225 

Models for Oral Analysis 226 

Models for Written Analysis 228 

IV. Analysis of the Compound Sentence 231 

I. Theory of the Compound Sentence 231 

II. Directions for Analysis 232 



APPENDIX 237 

A. The Noun 237 

I. Notes on Number , 237 

II. Notes on Gender 238 

III. Notes on Case 239 

B. The Pronoun 240 

C. The Verb 242 

I. Notes on the Paradigm 242 

II. List of Irregular Verbs 244 

III. Notes on the Irregular Verbs 250 

IV. Origin of the Infinitive with " to n » . . 252 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 

li Language is the expression of thought by means of 
spoken or written words. 

2, Grammar is the science that treats of the principles 
of language. 

Some principles are common to all languages, and these princi- 
ples form the science of general grammar ; but as the several 
languages differ widely, it is necessary to have a special gram- 
mar for each. Hence French grammar, German grammar, B?ig- 
lish grammar, etc. 

3, English grammar is the science that treats of the 
principles of the English language. 

Its use, or end, is to teach the art of speaking and writing 
the English language correctly. 

( Explains the structure ) 

As a science <-..,, > ^theory. 

( of the language ) 

. , ( Lays down rules for its ) 

As an art { J \ ^practice. 

( correct use J 

4, Words and Sentences. — Language consists of words 
arranged in sentences. 

I. A word is a significant sound or combination of sounds. It 
may be represented by a written character or combination of 
characters. 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete 
thought, and conveying an assertion, a question, a command, 
or a wish: as, (1) He comes. (2) Does he come? (3) Let him 
come. (4) O that he would come ! 

5. Divisions of Grammar. — Language is composed of 
sentences, and sentences are made up of words : hence arise 
the two principal divisions of English grammar: namely, 
etymology — treating of words by themselves ; and syntax — 
treating of words combined in sentences.. 



NOTES. 

I. The common division of English grammar has been into four 
parts — orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody, the offices of which 
are usually thus defined : 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. 
Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with their derivation 

and modifications. 
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement 

of words in sentences. 
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. 

II. A strict analysis of language - study considerably narrows the 
scope of grammar, by assigning to more appropriate places several of 
the kinds of knowledge vaguely included in grammatical science. 

Thus orthography (together with " utterance," i. e. orthoepy) forms the 
subject-matter of special manuals of spelling, and is to be learned from 
these and from the dictionary. Prosody is a branch of rhetoric, or 
English composition. The derivation of words (historical etymology) 
does not properly belong to grammar, but is to be studied in text- 
books of etymology, or word-analysis. 

III. It thus appears that grammar, in its strict sense, is limited to 
two* departments of language-study ; namely, grammatical etymology ; 
or accidence, and syntax — the former treating of the classification and 
grammatical forms of words, the latter treating of the principles and 
usages relating to the combination of words in speech. 



SECTION I 

ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 
CLASSIFICATION AND FORMS. 

6. Definition.— Etymology is that division of grammar 
which treats of the classification and grammatical forms 
of words. (See § 9.) 

7. Parts of Speech, — Words are arranged in classes ac- 
cording to their use in sentences ; and these classes, eight 
in number, are called the parts of speech. (" Speech " = 
language.) 

8. The parts of speech are — 

i. Noun. 5. Adverb. 

2. Pronoun. e. Preposition. 

3. Adjective. 7. Conjunction. 

4. Verb* 8. Interjection. 

9. A grammatical form is a mode of denoting somo 
property belonging to a part of speech. 

Thus number, a mode of denoting one or more than one, is a 
grammatical form of the noun. (Book — books.) Tense, a mode 
of denoting time, is a grammatical form of the verb. (Walk— 
walked.) Comparison, a mode of denoting degrees of a quality, 
is a grammatical form of the adjective. (Long — longer. ) 



4 ETYMOLOGY. 

10i The grammatical forms of the parts of speech are as 

follows : 

1. Number — a property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

2. Gender — a property of nouns and pronouns. 

3. Case — a property of nouns and pronouns. 

4. Person — a property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

5. Voice — a property of verbs. 

6. Mood — a property of verbs. 

7. Tense — a property of verbs. 

8. Comparison — a property of adjectives and adverbs. 

Hi A grammatical form is variously denoted: namely — 

1. By inflection, or a change in the ending of a word. 

Thus, in boys, s is an inflection or suffix to denote the grammatical 
form number. So ed in walked is an inflection to denote the 
grammatical form tense; and er in longer is an inflection to 
denote the grammatical form comparison. 

An inflected word is one that has, or may have, a grammatical suffix.* 

2. By radical change ; that is, by the change of a vowel in the 
root wordrt as, man, men ; tcrite, wrote. 

3. By an auxiliary term ; that is, by the use of a separate help- 
ing word joined with the word to be modified in meaning : as 
shall in " I shall love," to denote the future tense ; more in " more 
fortunate," to denote the comparative degree. 

4. By grammatical relation ; that is, by a special use of a word 
in a sentence. This frequently determines the grammatical form 
of a word when there is no visible indication of its form. 

Thus " boy " in " The boy flies his kite " is in what is called the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb " flies;" 
whereas in " The dog bit the boy " it is in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object of the verb " bit." 



* A grammatical suffix is to be distinguished from an ordinary suffix ; that 
is, a letter or syllable added to the termination of a word to form a derivative 
word, as/id in helpful, er in teacher. The former merely changes the meaning 
of the word a little ; the latter makes an entirely new word. 

t The " root," or " root word," is the primitive word — the word in its sim- 
plest form, before any change in it has been made : thus man } as contrasted 
with men, is a root word. 



GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 5 

12. Five of the parts of speech have grammatical forms: 
namely, the noun, the pronoun, the verb, the adjective, and 
the adverb. 

The remaining three — namely, the preposition, the con- 
junction, and the interjection — have no grammatical forms. 



NOTE ON THE TERM "GRAMMATICAL FORM." 

The expression grammatical form has been adopted in this text-book 
as a defining term of the various properties or " accidents " of words. 
It has been adopted in order to free the study of English grammar 
from the inconsistencies and contradictions that arise from the em- 
ployment of the defining terms in common use. Nearly all grammari- 
ans have given definitions that confine number, gender, case, person, 
etc., to inflections, or variations in the forms of words. Thus — 

"Numbers in grammar are modifications that distinguish unity and plu- 
rality." 

" Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex." 
" Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pro- 
nouns to other words." 

Such a mode of defining is suitable in the grammar of a highly inflect- 
ed language — Greek or Latin, for instance ; but it is foreign to the 
nature of the English tongue. English has but few inflections, and 
it resorts to other devices for denoting the grammatical peculiarities 
of words. Thus, it has but one inflection for case — nominative and 
objective being distinguished only by grammatical relation; yet all 
grammarians reckon three cases. It has only one inflection for tense, 
yet many tenses, these being formed by the aid of auxiliaries. It 
denotes gender but slightly by modifications, and mainly by the use 
of different words or of prefixes. 

The expression grammatical form covers all the peculiarities in the 
English mode of denoting the grammatical properties of words — 
whether indicated by inflection, by radical change, by auxiliaries, or by 
mere use. It also enables us to define number, gender, case, etc., in a 
manner really conformable to the genius of our language.* 

* Angus, Handbook of the English Tongue ; Fleming, English Language. 



Q ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE NOUN. 
I. Definition. 

13. A noun,* or name-word, is the name of anything^ 
existing or conceived by the mind. Thus — 

{James, Milton, Elizabeth names of persons. 
Borne, Boston, Washington... names of places. 
• Tree, river, thunder . . .names of things. 

Subjects of j Whiteness, wisdom, purity... names of attributes thought of. 
thought. | Heading, study, thinhing names of actions thought of. 

14, The tests of a noun are as follows : 

1. A noun may be the subject or the object of a verb. 
(See §§ 46, 48.) * 

2. It is the name of an object or an idea, not, like the 
pronoun, the representative of a name. 

3. It may (when the meaning permits) be inflected for 
number, gender, and case. 

I. Noun logically defined.— These tests, or defining marks, furnish 
the means of arriving at the full definition of the noun, which, 
according to the rules of defining, should run thus : A noun is a 
word which may be the subject or the object of a verb, which names 
an object or an idea, and which may be inflected for number, gender, 
and case. 

II. Substantive. — Any word or combination of words perform- 
ing the office of a noun is called a substantive. 

* From French nom, Latin nomen, a name— that by which anything is known. 

t The word " thing," or " anything," used in its widest sense, as above, 
signifies whatever we can think about, and applies to persons as well as to in- 
animate objects. 



THE NOUN.— CLASSES. 7 

II. Classes of Nouns. 

15. Divisions. — Nouns are divided into three principal 
classes, namely : I. Common. II. Proper. III. Abstract. 

16. A common noun is a general or class name : as — 

ship, book, flower, gold. 

A collective noun is a common noun denoting a collection of in- 
dividuals considered as forming one whole or body : as — 

army, congress, jury. 

17. A proper noun* is a special or individual name: 
as — 

Henry, Bismarck, Thomas Jefferson... names of individuals. 
Boston, Chicago, New Orleans special names of certain cities. 

DiSTiNCTiON.-r-The distinction ordinarily made between a common 
noun and a proper noun — to wit, that the former is the name 
of many individuals or of a class of objects, the latter of a par- 
ticular person or object — is not adequate : because, for instance, 
John Smith (a proper noun) is the name of more individuals 
than is king (a common noun). 

I. A common noun is the name an object receives by reason of its 
nature, as one of a class, each individual of which resembles 
every other in kind. Thus the common noun city is applicable 
to a large number of rjlaces, as Boston, Chicago, New Orleans, etc., 
for the reason that each resembles every other in those charac- 
teristics that constitute each a " city." 

A proper noun is a special name given to an object (person, place, 
or thing) without reference to its nature, in order to distinguish 
it, not only from things of a different class, but from individuals 
of the same class. Thus the common noun orator distinguishes 
all who do from all who do not belong to that class; but the 
proper nouns Cicero and Daniel Webster distinguish the persons 
so named from all other orators. 

II. A common noun is significant, that is, it has a meaning, and 



1 Proper " (Latin propmis) means own, or belonging to one's self. 



8 ETYMOLOGY. 

its name tells us at once what its nature is ; a proper noun is 
non - significant. Thus, the noun " river" signifies all that is 
meant by the definition of river ; but Hudson, as applied to a 
river, does not mean anything : it is a mere name. And that a 
proper noun signifies nothing as to the nature of the object 
denoted is shown by the fact that the name "Hudson," for ex- 
ample, is applied not only to a river, but to persons and to cities, 
and might be applied to mountains, horses, etc., just as well. 
A common noun describes ; a proper noun merely designates. 

18# An abstract noun is the name of some quality or 

whiteness, honesty, length, bravery. 
Explanation. — Every object possesses certain qualities or attri- 
butes. Thus a star may be bright and distant ; a horse, swift and 
strong ; a man, good and wise, etc. If we think of these qual- 
ities or attributes by themselves, thus, as it were, drawing them 
off from the objects to which they belong, the names of the 
attributes thus separated are abstract nouns (Latin abstractus, 
drawn off). Thus from the adjectives above given are formed 
the following abstract nouns : brightness, distance, swiftness, 
strength, goodness, wisdom. 



EXERCISE 1. 

Assign each noun to its class — common, proper, or abstract : 

1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 

2. The battle of Brandy wine was fought in Pennsylvania. 

3. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 

4. Thanks to the skill, energy, and perseverance of a few master-minds, the 

problem of girdling the earth is now practically solved. 

5. A host of Indian warriors rushed across the plain. 

6. The legislature meets in February. 

7. Seeing is believing. 

8. France has not seen such another king as Henry the Fourth* 

9. The Tempest was the last tragedy written by Shakspeare. 

10. Milton is the Homer of English literature. 

11. Many a frozen, many a fiery Alp appeared. 

12. O Justice, t thou art fled to brutish beasts ! 

* Complex names like " Henry the Fourth" may be called complex proper 
nouns. 

t A common (or abstract) noun personified is called a proper noun. 



TEE NOUN.— NOTES ON CLASSIFICATION. 



NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

The following subdivisions of the three classes of nouns are given 
for convenience of reference : 

I. Common Nouns. 

(1) General and class names : as, book, hero. To this subdivision 
belong most common nouns. Every such noun is applicable to all the 
individuals of a given kind. And every such noun is significant. 

(2) General names singular: as, color, space, life, time. These are 
common nouns, because they are significant, but they are not class- 
names, and do not in their strict sense admit a plural. Thus spaces 
denotes different portions of space ; colors, different kinds of color. 

(3) Names of materials : as, earth, icater, salt. These nouns denote 
an unbroken or continuous mass, and do not naturally admit a plural. 
When we speak . of earths, waters, we mean different species of earth 
or water, and these words are class-names. Thus the same word may 
be both a class-name and a name of a material, taking a plural in the 
one case but not in the other. "The merchant sampled several teas" 
[class-name] ; " The old lady drank a cup of tea " [name of material]. 

(4) Collective nouns : as, army, fleet, senate. In these many indi- 
viduals are spoken of as in one mass or body, which is then taken 
as a single object ; and a noun thus used has in the singular form 
a singular verb: as, "The fleet was victorious;" "The senate is to 
meet." 

Obs.— Certain collective nouns, as clergy, people, while denoting many 
individuals, imply that the individuals act separately, not as a body. 
Such nouns are sometimes called nouns of multitude, and they take 
a plural verb: thus, "The clergy were opposed to the measure;" 
"The people deeply/^ the disgrace." 

(5) Becoming proper : as. Providence (applied to the Deity) ; the 
President; the Queen of England. Such names, though allied to com- 
mon nouns in being significant, resemble proper nouns in being ap- 
plicable only to a single individual in the same sense. They are 
substitutes for given names, and may be called proper nouns. 

A2 



10 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. Proper Nouns. 

(1) Strictly proper : as, Milton, Jerusalem, the Alps. These are spe- 
cial names of persons, places, or things. Though strictly applicable 
only to a single individual at a time, a proper noun may take a plural 
form : as, the Miss Thompsons, the Rothschilds. 

(2) Becoming common: as, a Milton; "some village Hampden." In 
this use of proper nouns the design is to denote a class (" Milton " = 
poet; " Hampden " =i patriot), and the names are significant. Hence 
nouns thus used may be called common nouns. 

III. Abstract Nouns. 

(1) Abstract nouns denoting attributes: as, goodness, wisdom. A 
noun of this kind presupposes the existence of an adjective from 
which it is derived. 

(2) Verbal nouns: as, " To read is profitable;" "Reading is profita- 
ble." In the English language there are two of these verbal nouns, 
or verbals, for every verb, with the exception of the auxiliaries may,, 
can, shall, will, must, etc. ; namely : 

(a) The infinitive, that is, the verb in its simplest form, generally with 
to prefixed : as, to read; 

(b) The infinitive in ing (called the gerund): as, "Reading is profitable." 

Obs.— The peculiar nature of these verbal nouns will hereafter be fully ex- 
plained (see § 100). The infinitive in ing must not be confounded with the pres- 
ent participle: as, u The boy is writing," or "The boy, writing home, said," 
etc. When the form in ing can be substituted for the common infinitive, it is 
a verbal noun: thus, "Writing [=to write] is more difficult than reading [—to 
read]." 

SUMMARY. 

' Class names book, hero. 

Names singular color, space. 

Common.... -I Names of material ..gold, salt. 

Collective nouns senate, army. 

. Becoming proper Providence, the Park. 

( Strictly proper , John Milton. 

(Becoming common "a Milton. 11 

( Abstract (from adjectives) whiteness, hontsty. 

(infinitive to write. 

(verbal in ing. writing. 



Proper. 



Abstract . 



( Verbals 



THE NOUN.— NUMBER. \\ 

III. Grammatical Forms of the Noun. 

19, Number of Forms. — Nouns have four grammatical 
forms: I. Number. II. Gender. III. Case. IV. Person. 

I. NUMBER IN NOUNS. 

20, Definition, — Number is a grammatical form express- 
ing one or more than one of the objects named by the noun. 

21, The two numbers are, the singular number, which 
denotes one: as, star, child ; and the plural number, which 
denotes more than one : as, stars, children. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

22, There are two modes of forming the plural of nouns: 
namely, by inflection and by radical change. 

Some nouns have no distinguishing mark of number; 
these may be called indeterminate forms. 

1. By Inflection, 

23, General Kule, — The plural number of nouns is gen- 
erally formed by adding the inflection S or (where euphony 
requires) es to the singular.* 

24, The following classes of nouns generally add es for 
the plural : 

I. Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some 
nouns in preceded by a consonant : as, church, churches ; 
kiss, kisses ; dish, dishes ; box, boxes ; topaz, topazes; motto, 
mottoes. 

* I. When the noun ends in a sharp mute (p,f, t, th [in thin], k), the s has 
its sharp sound (in sea) : as, cats, books. 

II. W T hen the noun ends in aflat mute (b, v, d, th [in the], g), in a liquid {m, n, 
I, r), or in a vowel, the s has its flat sound z: as, dogs, hens, bells. 



12 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant. Such 
nouns substitute i for y before adding es : as, story, stories* 

3. A few Old-English nouns that end mfovfe and change 
they ovfe into v before adding es : as, thief, thieves ; wife, 
wives ; wolf, wolves / life, lives. 

2. By Radical Change* 

25. A few Old-English nouns form their plural by radi- 
cal change ; that is, by a modification of the vowel sound 
of the singular. These are — 

SINGULAB. PLUEAL. 

man men 

woman women 

foot feet 

goose geese 

tooth teeth 

mouse mice 

louse lice 

S. Indeterminate Forms. 

26, A few nouns have the same form for the plural as 
for the singular. Among these are — 

SINGULAR. PLUEAL. 



deer deer 

grouse grouse 

salmon salmon 

heathen heathen 

In these indeterminate forms the number of the noun is 
to be inferred from the context : thus, " A sheep was feed- 
ing on the hill ;" " Sheep were feeding on the hill." 



* In words of this class it is more accurate to state that ie has been changed 
in the singular into ?/, as the Old-English way of spelling the words in the sin- 
gular was ladie, glorie, etc. ; so that the modern plural is regularly formed from 
the old singular. 



THE NOUN.— NUMBER. 13 

PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 

27. Double Plurals. — Some nouns have double plurals, 
each possessing a peculiar signification : 

BENGrXAB. PLTJEAL. PLTJEAL. 

brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). 

cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 

die dies (stamps for coining) dice (for play). 

genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (spirits). 

index indexes (contents) .indices (algebraic signs). 

pea peas (single ones) pease (collective). 

penny pennies (coins) pence (value or amount). 

staff. staves (common use) staffs (military term). 

shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). 

Ash fish (collective) fishes (individuals). 

28. Plurals, as Singulars. — Some plural forms are 
usually treated as singular : as, amends, gallows, news, odds, 
jpai?is, tidings, wages, thanks. So — 



poUtics "] 

ethics 

physics 

optics 

mathematics 



represent Greek plurals, but are now treated 
as singular. Thus, " Mathematics is an im- 
proving study;" "Optics is the science of 
light." 



29. Plurals only. — Some nouns, the names of things 
consisting of more than one part or forming a pair, have 
only the plural form : 

annals entrails scissors 

antipodes nuptials shears 

breeches pantaloons tongs 

drawers pincers victuals 

dregs scales vitals 

30. Foreign Plurals. — Many foreign nouns, especially 
those that are imperfectly naturalized, retain their foreign 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

plural.* (The plurals of such nouns are readily found by 
reference to a dictionary.) 

SINGULAE. PLURAL. 

{formula formulae 

datum data 

radius radii 

,^ „ 7 ( axis axes 

(2) Greek \ . , 

v ' [ phenomenon phenomena 

M Tx 7 . ( bandit banditti 

(3) Italian { . A 

v J \ virtuoso virtuosi 

(4) Sebmo { cherub cheni v Mm 

( seraph seraphim 

31. Compounds. — With regard to compounds the follow- 
ing points are to be noted : 

I. The plural of compound nouns is generally formed by adding 
the suffix to the principal noun, that is, to the noun described: 
as, fruit-trees, brother s-in-law, aids-de-camp. 

II. When the last part of a compound is an adjective (according 
to the French idiom) the suffix is usually added to the noun : 
as, attorneys-general, courts-martial. 

Knights- Templars pluralizes both parts; as do also men-servants, 
women-servants. 

III. When the words are so closely allied that the meaning is in- 
complete till the whole is known, the plural sign is added at 
the end : as, forget-me-nots. 

* 1. Many Latin nouns adopted into our language retain their Latin end- 
ings: 

Nouns in us (masculine) form the plural in i ; as, focus, foci. 
" " us (neuter) " " " " era; as, genus, genera. 

" " um " " " " a; as, datum, data. 

" " a " " " " ce; as, nebula, nebulae. 

" " ex " " " " ices; as, vortex, vortices. 

2. Some Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek endings 
in the plural : thus — 

Nouns in is form the plural in es; as, crisis, crises. 

" " on " " " " a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 



THE NOUN. 15 

32. Proper Nouns. — When proper nouns become plural 
they generally follow the analogy of common nouns. As 
to those ending in y, usage is unsettled ; some writers add s y 
others follow the rule for common nouns. 






EXERCISE 2. 
A. 

Give the plural of the following nouns : 

1. Pen; desk; book; knife; fox; ox; foot; footman. 

2. Candle; map; cage; calf; class; hat; sky; toy. 

3. Cargo ; church ; monarch ; muff; tyro ; focus ; basis. 

4. Story; dictum; beau; potato; cherub; log; nebula. 

5. Chimney; automaton; genus; proof; axis. 

6. Criterion; child; woman; wife; kiss; staff. 

B. 

State the number ; and if singular spell the plural, and 
conversely. 

1. Boy ; man ; pennies ; sugar ; strap ; hens ; shoes ; fox ; ewes ; geese. 

2. Hens ; tigress ; ladies ; wren ; dose ; hose ; clothes ; feet ; tooth ; ox ; 

vixen ; cows ; mouse ; cruise ; crews. 

3. Oxen; fish; children; a sheep; three deer; steer; tax; boxes; sorceress. 

4. Deacons; deaconess; cheese; valleys; trees; lees; grease; rice; dice. 

c. 

Write the following sentences, changing the nouns in the 
plural to nouns in the singular number : 

1. Monkeys are the animals which most resemble men. 

2. Mice are running across the room. 

3. Sheep have woolly fleece. 

4. The appendices to these books are short. 

5. The hypotheses will not hold good. 

6. The data proved to be false. 

7. The premises were true. 

8. The radii of circles are half their diameters. 

9. Nebulae appeared in the heavens. 

10. Gipsies offered to tell us our fortunes. 

11. The mountains are enveloped in mists. 

12. There are beautiful roses in our gardens. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. GENDER IN NOUNS. 

33. Definition, — Gender is a grammatical form express- 
ing the sex or non-sex of the object named by a noun. 

That is to say, it is a distinction in the form or in the meaning of 
nouns (and pronouns), by virtue of which they stand respec- 
tively for objects of the male sex, or of the female sex, or fof 
objects without sex. 

34, Gender is determined by sex or non-sex, and is of 
three kinds, I. The masculine gender. II. The feminine 
gender. III. The neuter gender. 

The name of anything of the male sex is called a mascu- 
line noun, or a noun of the masculine gender: as, man, 
king, father. 

The name of anything of the female sex is called a fem- 
inine noun, or a noun of the feminine gender : as, woman, 
queen, mother. 

The name of anything without sex is called a neuter 
noun, or a noun of the neuter gender : as, stone, tree, house. 

35s Various grammatical usages in regard to gender may 
here be noted : 

I. A plural noun that is known to denote individuals of both sexes 
is said to be of common gender. 

II. A singular noun which by its meaning is indeterminate in 
gender, but which is known to denote a male, is of the mascu- 
line gender. 

III. A singular noun which by its meaning is indeterminate in 
gender, but which is known to denote a female, is of the fem- 
inine gender. 

IV. A singular noun so used that the context does not denote the 
sex of the object is of the masculine gender. 

V. In the case of the smaller animals and of young children it 
frequently happens that their names are referred to by means 
of neuter pronouns : as, " The baby cried itself to sleep." 



THE NOUN.— GENDER. 17 

VI. Things without life are often personified (that is, spoken of as 
if they were living beings), and in such cases masculine and 
feminine pronouns are used in speaking of them : thus — 

For Winter came: the wind was his whip, 
One choppy finger was on his lip : 
He had torn the cataracts from the hills, 
And they clanked at his girdle like manacles. 

36, Its Use. — The distinction of gender is of small im- 
portance in English grammar, and appears principally in the 
employment of the pronouns he, she, it, and a few words of 
the same class. 

Historical Note. — In modern English, gender (based as it is 
solely on the sex or non-sex of the object denoted by the noun) 
differs widely from gender in Latin or Greek grammar, and 
also from gender in the Anglo-Saxon form of our speech. In 
Latin, Greek, and various other languages, the gender of a noun 
is generally determined, not by the sex or non-sex of the object 
denoted, but by the class to which the noun itself oelongs accord- 
ing to its termination. Thus in Latin, nouns in a (1st declension) 
are feminine : hence, penna (a pen) is feminine. This may be 
called grammatical gender (applicable only to words), in contra- 
distinction to gender expressive of sex or non-sex, which may 
be styled natural gender. 

37. How Marked. — The distinction of gender in mascu- 
line and feminine nouns that stand for pairs of males and 
females is made in three ways: (1) by the use of distinct 
words for the name of the male and of the female ; (2) by 
an auxiliary word ; (3) by the use of suffixes. 



38. First Mode. — Quite different words are used : 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

man woman 

boy girl 

husband wife 

son daughter 

stag hind 



as — 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

The gender of such nouns can be known only by their meaning ; 
and to give this does not belong to grammar. 

39. Second Mode. — An auxiliary word denoting sex is 
joined with a noun of indeterminate gender, thus forming 
a compound word : as — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

man-servant maid-servant 

he-goat she-goat 

40. Third Mode, — The feminine is denoted by an inflec- 
tion of gender. The commonest of these, and the only 
one by which new feminines can still be formed, is the 
suffix ess : as, murder-er, murder-ess; host, host-ess. 

41. Inflection ess.— The suffix ess is an inflection of the 
feminine gender, corresponding to the suffix er for the 
masculine. The following cases are to be noted : 

I. When a masculine noun ends in er, and the correspond- 
ing feminine noun ends in ess, we have what is strictly 
termed grammatical gender: as — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

murder-er murder-ess 

sorcer-er sorcer-ess 

II. But such pairs of words are now very rare ; and usu- 
ally the masculine noun corresponding to a feminine noun 
in ess has no ending to mark gender : thus — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

giant giant-ess 

heir heir-ess 

poet poet-ess 

III. Frequently the root word undergoes some change of 
spelling on taking the suffix ess : thus — 



THE NOUN.— GENDER. 19 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

actor actr-ess 

hunter huntr-ess 

negro negr-ess 

votary votar-ess 

I. The suffix er (Anglo-Saxon ere = man) is an Old-English in- 
flection of the masculine gender. The corresponding feminine 
inflection was ster. The suffix ess is a Norman-French inflec- 
tion of the feminine gender, and in course of time took the 
place of the Anglo-Saxon ster. 

II. In earlier periods of our language, the number of feminines in 
ess was much greater than at present ; thus, doctress, waggoness, 
cousiness, and many other similar nouns were in use in the time 
of Shakspeare. In our own day a tendency to revive some of 
these feminines, and to form others (expressive especially of pro- 
fessions recently adopted by women, as doctress, waitress, editress, 
etc.), is noticeable ; but good taste in most cases discourages 
such innovations, and, indeed, obviates the need of them by 
treating terms like doctor, author, writer, engraver, as applicable 
equally to women and to men. 

42, Foreign Inflections, — In some borrowed words we 
have feminine endings of foreign origin : thus — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Latin executor execu-trix 

Greek hero hero-ine 

But it will be observed that we cannot, as in the case of ess. em- 
ploy these endings in forming new feminines. 



EXERCISE 3. 

State the gender of the following words : 

1. Cow; lass; mistress; poet; gander. 

2. Widower; aunt; uncle; priestess; goddess. 

3. Lamb; horse; cattle; hogs; pigs; chickens. 

4. Pauline ; bridegroom ; ship ; sun ; moon. 

5. Husband; wife; steer; heifer; gentleman; lady. 

6. Moor-hen; ink-bottle, editor; regiment; witch. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. CASE IN NOUNS. 

43. Definition. — Case is the relation of a noun to some 
other word in the sentence. 

Illustration. — In the sentence, 

The general praised the soldier's bravery, 
"general" stands for the person who did the action denoted by 
the verb " praised ;" " bravery " stands for that towards which the 
action {pi praising) went ; " soldier's " is used to indicate whose 
bravery was praised. " General " and " bravery n have each a 
certain relation to the verb "praised," and "soldier's" has a 
certain relation to the noun " bravery." 

44. Case-forms.— Nouns in English have only two case- 
forms, exemplified in the words boy, boy's ; bird, bird's ; 
but as there are at least three distinct relations of the noun, 
and as in most pronouns each of these uses is denoted by a 
separate word, it is usual to reckon three cases of nouns. 

45. The cases are: — I. The nominative case. II. The 

POSSESSIVE CASE. III. The OBJECTIVE CASE. 

46. The nominative case is that form which a noun has 
when it is the subject of a verb : as, " The boy grows." 

The subject of adverb represents that of which something is as* 
serted. 

47. The possessive case is that form which a noun has 
in order to denote ownership or possession : as, " The boy's 
book is lost." 

48. The objective case is that use which a noun has 
when it is the object of a verb (or of a preposition). Nouns 
have the same form in the nominative and objective cases, 
the case being determined by the relation which the noun 
bears to the verb : as, " The man struck the boy." 



THE NOUN.— CASE. 21 

The object of a verb is the name of that on which the action 
spoken of by a verb terminates. It answers to whom or what 
after the verb. 



49. Eule for Possessive. — The possessive case in the sin- 
gular number, and in those plurals which do not end in S 
in the nominative, is formed by suffixing S with an apostro- 
phe before it ('s) to the nominative case : as, boy] 8, John's, 
men's. 

In those plurals that end in S, the possessive is formed by 
placing the apostrophe alone after the S: as, "the loyi 
books," "the hi/rdi feathers." 

I. It was formerly customary to mark the possessive case singular 
of nouns ending in s, x, or ce by placing an apostrophe without 
the s after .the word : as, "Socrates' wife," " the Times' editorial." 
But this practice is now nearly obsolete, except in a few special 
cases, as, " for conscience'' sake ;" and it would be well could we at- 
tain the uniform method of writing the possessive singular with 
the 5 s. It is better to write " Charles's book" than " Charles'* 
book ;" u the goddess's wrath" than " the goddess' wrath." Wheth- 
er the suffix shall be 'pronounced is a matter of euphony or (in 
verse) of metrical necessity ; in writing, the suffix 's belongs to 
the possessive singular as a matter of grammatical justice. 

II. The inflection *s of the possessive singular represents the 
Anglo-Saxon suffix es, which was used to mark the possessive 
(or genitive) case singular of certain classes of nouns : as, nomi- 
native, smith ; genitive, smithes= smith's, or of a smith. The 
apostrophe denotes the elision of the e in the old es. 

ITT. In compound or complex names the sign of the possessive is 
affixed to the last word only ; as, " my father-in-law's house," 
"John Stuart Mill's Political Economy." 

50. Declension. — A noun is said to be declined when we 
name its three cases in the two numbers; the process of 
doing so is called declension. 



22 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Declension of Nouns. 



BOY. 






MAN. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




8INGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. boy 


boys 


Nom. 


man 


men 


Poss. boy's 


boys' 


Poss. 


man's 


men's 


Obj. boy 


boys 


Obj. 


man 


men 


LADY. 






SHEEP. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. lady 


ladies 


Nom. 


sheep 


sheep 


Poss. lady's 


ladies' 


Poss. 


sheep's 


sheep's 


Obj. lady 


ladies 


Obj. 


sheep 


sheep 



EXERCISE 4. 
A. 

In the following sentences select first the nouns in the 
nominative case, and then those in the objective case : 

1. I love John. 

2. John loves me. 

3. The boy likes play. 

4. Play tires the boy. 

5. The hunters followed the hound. 

6. The snow covered the ground. 

7. John Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 

8. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. 

9. Across his brow his hand he drew. 

10. The children coming home from school 
Look in at the open door ; 

They love to see the flaming forge, 
And hear the bellows roar, 
And catch the burning sparks that fly 
Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 

11. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

13. Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere ; 
Heaven did a recompense as largely send, 



THE NOUN.— PERSON. 23 

B. 

Give the possessive, singular and plural (if any), of the fol- 
lowing nouns : 

1. Child; prince; woman; king; cable; tutor. 

2. Peril; mercy; father; Henry; aunt; cat. 

3. Charles; gardener; brother; poetess; author; painter. 

4. Sculptor; engraver; sister; Socrates; princess; bridge. 

5. House; Peter; righteousness; ox; thief; sheep. 

c. 

Write the following — changing the italicized phrases into 
possessive nouns : 

1. A cap oj the boy. 2. The mother of Moses. 3. The dresses of the ladies. 
4. The son of the pnncess. 5. The pain-killer of Davis. 6. The wrath of Achilles. 
7. The work of the men. 8. The wool of the sheep. 9. The hat of Mr. Jacob. 
10. The house of Mr. Jacobs. 11. The store of the Messrs. Murray. 12. The 
banking-house of Brown Brothers. 13. The houses of my sons-in-law. 



IV. PERSON IN NOUNS. 

51, Person in nouns is a grammatical form which shows 
whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of .* 

Grammatical person is best understood by reference to the per- 
sonal pronouns. (See § 56.) 

There are three persons : the first, the second, and the 
third — the first denoting the speaker, the second the person 
spoken to, the third the person or thing spoken of. 

52. How known. — Person in nouns is not marked by any 
sign, being denoted wholly by grammatical relation. 

* The word "person" has in grammar a technical meaning quite different 
from its ordinary signification (namely, a rational being or individual). The 
term was borrowed by the old grammarians from the language of the stage, 
in which the players, only three in number, were called the " persons" of the 
drama (dramatis personal). From this the word came to mean the character 
assumed, the part taken by each performer. Hence "person," as a grammat- 
ical term, means a mode of denoting (by the use of a noun and by the form of a 
pronoun) the parts sustained by the several participants in discourse — as that 
of the speaker, the person addressed, etc. 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

I. A noun used in connection with a personal pronoun of the first 
person is in the first person: as, u I,Paitl." 

II. A noun used in connection with a personal pronoun of the sec- 
ond person is in the second person : as, " Thou, God, seest me." 

III. A noun that is the name of anything spoken of is in the third 
person. Nouns are always in the third person except when they 
are in apposition (see page 102) with a pronoun of the first or 
second person. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF NOUNS. 

A. 

TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. 

C Common. 

Classes 3 Proper. 

( Abstract. 

f Masculine. 



Gram. Forms. 



Gendeb... Feminine 
[Common.] 
[ Neuter. 

C Nomina 
< Possessi 
( Objective. 



C Nominative. 
. Case ) Possessive, 



Inflections if ^ es = plural. 

(V- 



possessive case singular. 



B. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 
I. Definition of the Noun. 

1. Tests. 

2. Logical Definition. 

II. Classes of Nouns. 

1. Common defined. 

Collective. 

2. Proper defined. 

Distinction of proper and common. 
8. Abstract defined. 



THE NOUN.— REVIEW. 25 



EH. Grammatical Forms. 

1. NUMBEK DEFINED. 

a. Singular. 

b. Plural. 

2. Formation of Plural. 

a. By inflection. 

b. By radical change — examples. 

c. Indeterminate forms — examples. 

3. Gender defined. 

a. How determined. 

b. Masculine. 

c. Feminine. 

d. Common. 

e. Neuter. 

4. Marks of Gender. 

a. By different words — examples. 

b. By prefixed words — examples. 

c. By inflection — examples. 

5. Case deflned. 

a. Case-forms. 

b. Cases — number of. 

c. Nominative. 

d. Possessive — formation of. 

e. Objective. 

/. Declension — examples. 



c. 

WRITTEN REVIEWS.* 
I. 

1. State the derivation of the word noun. 

2. Write a sentence containing two nonns, the names of material 
objects, and a sentence containing two nouns, the names of objects 
perceived by the mind. 

* In these Written Reviews the questions have in some cases reference to 
matter in subordinate type or to matter in the Notes (see Appendix, page 237). 

B 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. State to which of the following words the three tests of the noun 
apply (and hence which are nouns) : hero, heroic, we, man, truly, who. 

4. Give the three principal divisions of nouns, and illustrate each 
class by an example in a sentence. 

5. Write in your own language the chief distinction between a proper 
noun and a common noun, and apply the explanation to the nouns 
river and Amazon. 

6. Give three examples of an abstract noun. Form three from any 
three adjectives. 

7. To which class of nouns do the words " seeing " and " believing" 
in the sentence " Seeing is believing'''' belong ? 

8. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding s or es to the 
singular. Explain the following plurals which are otherwise formed : 
oxen* feet, mice, children* strata. 

9. Write the plurals of the following words : cow, Tcnife, wife, dwarf \ 
staff, ox, die, house, wealth, phenomenon, canto, lily, donkey, stomach, son- 
in-law, brigadier-general. 

10. In the following stanzas classify the nouns : 

Can storied urn or animated bust 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 

Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death ? 

Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast 

The little tyrant of his fields withstood, 
Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, 

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. 

II. 

1. State the origin of the plural suffix s, and illustrated 

2. Write a sentence containing a collective noun. 

3. State the number of the following nouns : mathematics, scissors^ 
deer, alms. 

4. Write the plural of Englishman, Frenchman, Mussulman, Ottoman, 
German, talisman. 

5. Give three nouns (a) that have no singular form ; (b) that have 
no plural form ; (c) that have singular and plural alike. 

* See " Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237. 
t See " Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237. 



THE NOUN.— REVIEW. 27 

6. Give the two plurals of the following words, and distinguish be- 
tween the meanings : die, brother, cloth, penny. 

7. How does gender differ from sex ? 

8. State the several modes of forming the feminine of nouns, and 
illustrate by examples. 

9. From what language is the feminine suffix ess derived ? What 
was the corresponding Anglo-Saxon suffix ? 

10. Is there anything etymologically peculiar in the following 
words : songstress, spinster ?* 

m. 

1. "Write two masculine nouns formed from the feminine.t 

2. Write three nouns of common gender. 

3. Why is there no need of such feminine forms as waitress, editress, 
etc.? 

4. Write the definition of case, name the three cases, and illustrate 
by the declension of a noun. 

5. What is the only c&se-inflection in modern English ? 

6. How do we distinguish between the nominative and the possess- 
ive case ? 

7. Explain the origin of 'a in such a word as father's. Will the 
same explanation apply to the plural, fathers' ?\ 

8. Write the possessive case plural of man, lady, enemy. 

9. Explain the term objective case. 

10. State the grammatical forms (that is, the number, gender, case, 
and person) of " hero " in the sentence " The hero perished in his 
prime," giving the reason for each form. 

* Appendix, page 338. t Appendix, page 238. % Appendix, page 240. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTEE III. 

THE PRONOUN. 

I. Definition. 

53 i A pronoun* is a word used for a name or instead of 
a noun : as, " / say ;" " He remained ;" " Who is afraid ?" 
" That is good." 

I. A pronoun cannot be correctly defined merely as " a word used 
instead of a noun." This definition holds good with reference 
to some of them only : it does not apply, for instance, to the 
personal pronouns of the first and second persons (/, you), which 
can by no means be said to stand instead of a noun.f 

II. A pronoun resembles sl noun (1) in having the grammatical uses 
of the noun ; and (2) in having, when the meaning permits, 
grammatical forms to denote gender, number, and case. It differs 
from a noun in not being a name. The noun describes, the pro- 
noun designates without describing. 

II. Classification and Inflection. 

54. Pronouns are divided into three classes: — I. Per- 
sonal. II. Relative. III. Interrogative. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

55, A personal pronoun is one that marks grammatical 
person. 

The personal pronouns are : /, you (thou), he, she, it, with 
their plurals, we, you (ye), they. 

Person has been already defined under Nouns (see § 51) as a gram- 
matical form which shows whether the speaker is meant, the 
person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

* Latin pro y for, and nomen, a name, or noun, 
t See "The Pronoun," Appendix, page 24L 



THE PROXOUN. 29 

56. There are three persons: the first, the second, and the 
third. 

A personal pronoun is of the first person when it denotes 
the speaker, of the second person when it denotes the person 
spoken to, and of the third person when it denotes the per- 
son or thing spoken of. 

The ordinary definition above given has brevity to recommend it ; 
but a more accurate description would be as follows : 

1. The personal pronoun of the first person is that, used when one 
speaks of himself singly (I), or of himself together with another 
person or other persons (we). 

2. The personal pronoun of the second person is that used when 
one speaks of the person or persons whom he is addressing 
(you — thou, ye). 

3. The personal pronoun of the third person is that used when any 
person or persons, thing or things, are spoken of (he, she, it, they). 

57. Grammatical Forms,— In addition to person, the per- 
sonal pronouns all express number and case, and the third 
personal pronoun in the singular number expresses gender. 

58. Declension, — The following is a tabular view of the 
personal pronouns, showing their various inflections and 



other changes. 








Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 






SINGULAR. 


PLTTRAL. 






Norn. Poss. Obj. 


Nora. Poss. 


Obj. 


First person, 


I, my or mine, me. 


We, our or ours, 


us. 


Second, 


You, your or yours, you. 


You, your or yours, 


you. 


rMas. 


He, his, him. ~\ 






Third, ) Fern. 


She, her or hers, her. > 


They, their or theirs 


them. 


yNeut. 


It, its, it. J 







Second pers., solemn style. — Thou, thy or thine, thee. Nom.pl. Ye. 

The pronouns of the first and second persons have two forms of 
the possessive case : my, mine; thy, thine; our, ours ; your, yours; 
the third person feminine has her, hers; the third person 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

plural has their, theirs. The former of each pair is used attribu* 
tively, i. e., with a noun expressed ; the latter is used indepen- 
dently, after a verb. Thus — 

' my \ / mine. 

1 her / \ hers. 

This is J our > house. But, This house is J ours. 

I your I J yours. I 

k their J I theirs. , 

The former set are generally called possessive adjectives or pos- 
sessive adjective pronouns ; the latter are by some grammarians 
called personal pronouns in the possessive case, and by others 
are considered independent possessive pronouns, in the nomi- 
native or objective case, according to their construction in a 
sentence. 

59. Compounds. — A compound form is obtained for the 
personal pronouns, in the nominative and objective cases, by 
adding self or selves to the possessive of the first and second 
persons, and to the objective of the third person. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Myself, Ourselves. 

2. \ Th y self > ) Yourselves. 
( Yourself, ) 

{Himself, ] 
Herself, V Themselves. 

Itself, ) 

I. Sometimes these compounds are put in apposition to another 
word merely to give it force ; in this instance they may be 
termed emphatic personal pronouns : as, " John himself went ;" 
" They went themselves." 

II. When used after a transitive* verb, such words are termed 
reflexive pronouns, as implying the bending back of an action 
upon the person or thing spoken of: as, " John hurt himself." 

III. The pronouns of the first and second persons do not mark 
distinctions of gender, because when a person speaks of himself 
or to another, the sex, being evident, does not require to be 
formally expressed. The plurals are necessarily indeterminate 

* See § 91, 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. %\ 

in gender, as we, you, and they may include persons of different 
sexes. 
IV. You is now employed both as the singular and plural of the 
second person, but is used only with verbs in the plural num- 
ber: as, a You are" (not art). Thou, the old form, is now ob- 
solete except in religious or poetical use, and in the idiom of 
the Society of Friends. 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

60. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that both repre- 
sents a preceding noun or pronoun and connects with it a 
dependent proposition :* as — 

1. No people can be great who [have ceased to be virtuous], 

2. How blest is he who crowns in shades like these 
A youth of labor with an age of ease. 

3. I have found the sheep which was lost. 

4. I dare do all that may become a man. 

5. One man admires ichat displeases another. 

All pronouns have a representative use ; but what is peculiar in 
the relatives is their connective office. (On this account the 
relatives are often called conjunctive pronouns.) They go back 
{relate) in meaning to some foregoing {antecedent) word or 
words with which they serve to join some descriptive state- 
ment. A relative pronoun cannot form the subject of an in- 
dependent proposition. 

61 1 The antecedent of a relative is the noun or pronoun 
represented by the relative. 

62, The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what. 
Who is used to represent persons, and which to represent in- 
ferior animals and lifeless things ; that refers both to persons 
and things, and is used instead of who or which in certain 
circumstances. 

Note. — The rules for the use of that belong to Syntax (see page 181). 
For the idiomatic use of as and but as relatives, see Idiomatic Forms, 
page 186. 

* For the definition of dependent proposition (or clause), see § 220. 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

Who and which are inflected as follows, alike in the singular and 
the plural : 

SING. & PL. SING. & PL. 

Nom who which 

Poss whose whose 

Obj whom which 

That and what are indeclinable. 

63. What is a relative used without an antecedent, and 
is equivalent in meaning to that which. (See page 109.) 

64. Compound relatives are formed by adding ever and 
soever to who, which, and what. These compounds may be 
called indefinite relative pronouns. Whosoever is declined — 

Nom whosoever 

Poss whosesoever 

Obj whomsoever 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

65. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in ask- 
ing a question. They are who? which? and what? Who 
and which are declined in the same manner as the corre- 
sponding relatives. 

66. Who is applied to persons : thus — 

Who told you so ? Whose is this book ? To whom shall I apply % 

67. Which is applied both to persons and things when it 
is used to ask which individual of a known class or number 
is the object inquired about : thus — 

Which of you did this ? Which (thing) shall I take ? 

68. What is used with reference to things in an indefinite 
manner: thus — 

What shall I say ? What do you want ? 



THE PRONOUN.— REVIEW. 33 

EXERCISE 5. 

Select the pronouns, and state to which class each belongs : 

1. I hope you will give me the book I lent you. 2. Whenever Antonio met 
Shylock on the Rialto, he used to reproach him with his usuries and hard deal- 
ings ; which the Jew would hear with seeming patience, while he secretly 
meditated revenge. 3. What did the prisoner say ? 4. Tell me what the pris- 
oner said. 5. Ours are as good as yours. 6. You must blame yourselves for 
your loss. 7. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. 8. Who 
would fardels bear, to groan and sweat under a weary life, when he himself 
might his quietus make with a bare bodkin ? 9. She deserves great praise for 
her work. 10. Behold the moon ; she cometh forth in her beauty. 11. This is 
not the book that I sent you for. 

12. And I have loved thee, Ocean ! and my joy 

Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be 

Borne, like thy bubbles, onward : from a boy 

I wantoned with thy breakers— they to me 

Were a delight ; and, if the freshening sea 

Made them a terror— 'twas a pleasing fear; 

For I was as it were a child of thee, 

And trusted to thy billows far and near, 

And laid my hand upon thy mane— as I do here. 



GENERAL REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 

A. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 

L Definition of the Pronoun. 

1. Real nature of the pronoun. 

2. Compared with the noun. 

a. Resemblances. 

b. Differences. 

n. Classification of the Pronoun. 

1. Personal defined. 

2. Number of personal pronouns* 

a. Use of the first personal. 

b. Use of the second personal. 

c. Use of the third personal. 

B2 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Grammatical forms of personal pronouns. 

4. Declension. 

a. First personal. 

b. Second personal. 

c. Third personal. 

d. Double possessive forms. 

5. Compound personals. 

Their functions. 

6. Relative defined. 

I 7. Antecedent defined. 

8. Principal relatives. 

a. Who — its use. 

0. Who — declined. 

c. Which — its use. 

d. That — its use. 

e. Compound relatives. 

9. Interrogative defined. 

a. Who? 

1. Which? 
c. What? 



B. 

WRITTEN REVIEW. 

1. Define pronoun. 

2. State in what respect the ordinary definition is inadequate. 

3. Write the full definitions of the personal pronouns of the first, 

second, and third persons respectively. 

4. Explain mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs. What is the difference "be- 

tween my and mine ? — their and theirs ? 

5. When was the word its first introduced ? What form did it sup- 

plant ?* 

6. What is peculiar in the use of the relative pronouns ? 

7. Write a sentence containing who as a relative ; — a sentence contain- 

ing which as a relative ; — a sentence containing whom as a relative. 

8. Write a sentence containing who as an interrogative ; — a sentence 

containing whom as an interrogative. 

* See Appendix, page 241. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— CLASSIFICATION. 35 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

I. Definition. 

69, An adjective* is a word joined to a noun (or pronoun) 
to limit or qualify its meaning : thus — 

1. Th is book; fixe apples; awfo'tehorse; red roses; wise men. 

2. The fields are green. We call the proud happy. 

I. All adjectives limit the application of the nouns to which they 
are joined, and in the case of one class of adjectives (namely, 
the limiting) the sole office is that of restricting the extent of 
application of the noun. Thus: "this book" — that is, not a' 
book in general, or your book; "five apples" (no more or less). 

But qualifying adjectives have a double office : while they narrow 
the application of the nouns with which they are joined, they 
also increase their meaning. Thus, in the expression " a white 
horse," the adjective "white" adds to the notion "horse" the 
notion of a certain attribute, namely, that of whiteness ; so that 
"white horse" forms one complex description. But the adjec- 
tive " white " serves also to confine the meaning of the term 
"horse" to one of a special kind of horses, namely, "tchite 
horses;" and these form a smaller class than "horses" in 
general. 

II. An adjective is not always joined directly (attributively) to a 
noun ; the attribute named by the adjective may be asserted 
(predicatively) by means of a verb : as, " The fields are green ;" 
" We call the proud happy." 



II. Classification. 
70. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes: 

* From Latin adjectivus, that may be added or annexed to something (that 
is, to a noun or a pronoun). 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

I. Limiting (or definitive) adjectives. II. Qualifying (or 

descriptive) adjectives. 

I. LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

71. A limiting (or definitive) adjective is one that merely 
defines or restricts the meaning of a noun : as — 

a book ; this school ; some peaches ; three black crows. 

72. Limiting adjectives are subdivided into three classes: 
I. Articles. II. Pronominal adjectives. III. Numeral 

ADJECTIVES. 

I. Articles. 

73. The limiting adjectives the and an or a are called 
articles.* The is called the definite article; an,ov a, the 
indefinite article. 

I. The is used to point out (1) one or more particular objects or 
(2) a class of objects : as, " The clog bit the boys ;" that is, the 
particular "dog" and "boys" previously referred to. " The 
dog is a faithful animal ;" that is, the class or hind of animals 
named dogs. 

II. An, or a, is used to indicate any one of a class of objects named 
by a noun : as, "A dog bit me." " I saw an old man." 

74. An and af (which are merely different forms of the 
same word) are both called the indefinite article. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound : 

* There is no good reason for erecting the articles into a part of speech. 
They are simply limiting adjectives, and, strictly speaking, do not deserve to 
be made even a separate subdivision of this class of adjectives ; for the is merely 
a contracted form of the demonstrative that, and an, or «, a contracted form of 
the numeral one (Anglo-Saxon ane or an). The term " article " is, however, in 
such common use that it has been retained in this book. 

t The n in an is a part of the root (Anglo-Saxon ane or an = one). Hence 
it is not a that becomes an before a vowel or a silent A, according to the com- 
mon rule, but an that loses its final letter before a consonant. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 37 

as, " a man," " a house," " a wonder," " a year," " a use," 
" a unit," " a European."* 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound : 
as, " an art," " an end," " an heir," " an hour," " an urn."f 

II. Pronominal Adjectives. 

75. Some limiting adjectives may by themselves repre- 
sent a noun. When thus used they are called pronomiual 
adjectives i 

A. pronominal adjective (pro, for, and nomen, a name or noun) some- 
times performs the office both of an adjective and of a noun. 
Thus: "Is this his book?" "No, it is mine" (—my book). 
We heard the minister's speech, but not that (= the speech) of 
the doctor." 






much 


some 


neither 


such 


own 


that 


several 


this 



76, The principal pronominal adjectives are included in 
the following list : 

all each 

another either 

any few 

both many 

The following sentences illustrate the use of these words as limit- 
ing adjectives and as pronominal adjectives : 

LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

All the world's a stage. 
There is another and a better 
world. 

Is there any\ danger ? 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

All assented to the plan. 
Never either found another to 
free the hollow heart from paining. 
If any, speak. 



* U\ong (that is, sounded like the combination you), as also its representa- 
tive eu, has an initial consonant sound ; hence, a use, a eulogy. 

t In regard to the employment of a or of an before words beginning with k 
aspirate there is a difference of usage, especially in the case of certain words 
commencing with h faintly sounded, and when the accent is on the second 
syllable. Thns, while we say ; 'a history," u a hero," many prefer to write 
ll an historical work," " an heroic deed." This is perhaps the more scholarly, 
but it does not promise to become the popular usage. 

X Any contains the original form of the numeral one (Anglo-Saxon an\ 
with the suffix ig or y. 



38 



ETYMOLOGY. 



LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

Both courses are dangerous. 
Each* ivied arch is in decay. 

Either^ plan promises well. 
Few men can bear prosperity. 

We have passed many happy 
days. 

I have much pleasure in serving 
you. 

Neither plan promises well. 

This is my own, my native land. 

Several boys ran away. 

Some pious drops the closing eye 
requires. 

Such\ harmony is in immortal 
souls. 

Look on this picture. 

Look on that picture. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

Both are dangerous. 

Each seemed the centre of his 
own fair world. 

I will take either. 

Few, few shall part where many 
meet. 

Few, few shall part where many 
meet. 

Though much is taken, much re- 
mains. 

I will take either, but you shall 
have neither. 

It is a trifle, but my own. 

Several were missing. 

Some fell by the wayside. 

If you are a man, show yourself 

such. , 

Look on this. 
Look on that. 



NOTES ON LIMITING AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

I. Demonstratives. — The following pronominal adjectives are often 
named demonstratives, or demonstrative adjectives (or pronouns) : this, 
these ; that, those ; former, latter ; same, such. 

II. Indefinites. — The following are often named indefinite adjectives 
(or pronouns) : all, any, another, few, many, none, other, some. 

III. Distributives. — The following are often named distributive ad- 
jectives (or pronouns) : each, either, neither. 

IV. Interrogative and Relative. — The interrogative and relative 
pronouns which and what, with their compounds whichever and whatever, 
when used with nouns, are classed as limiting adjectives. 

* Each is derived from Old-English a=ever, and Uc=\\\lq. 
t " Neither " is either with the negative prefix ne=wot. 
% Such is derived from so (Old-English swa) and like (Old-English lie), that 
is, so like or this like. 



Relatives. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 39 

Which book will you have ? 
What noise is this ? 
\ I see which book you wish. 



Interrogatives... . 

( What noise is this ? 



( I know what pains you take. 



V. Limiting Only. — The indefinite adjective no* the demonstrative 
adjective yonder, and the distributive adjective every\ are used solely 
as limiting adjectives. 

The indefinite none% is pronominal only: as, "None knew thee but to 
love thee." 

VI. Inflected Forms. — Some of the pronominal adjectives have so 
completely assumed the office of nouns that they undergo inflections. 
Thus, either and another have a possessive form, either % another's : as — 

1. Then cither's love was eithefs life. 

2. Learn to feel another's woe. 

Other has a plural, others, which is regularly declined: nom. others; 
poss. others"; obj. others. 

III. Numeral Adjectives. 

77. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite 
number : as, one, two, three / first, second, etc. 

78i Numeral adjectives are divided into two classes: 
1. Cardinal, which denote how many: as, "two bats;" 
" three balls." 

The cardinal numerals from one to ninety-nine are adjectives; but 
the words hundred, thousand, million (like pair and dozen) are 
nouns, and may be preceded by the indefinite article : as, " a 
hundred sheep ;"§ or may take the plural form: as, "hundreds 
of sheep." 

* " No " is formed from none by dropping ne, just as my is formed from mine. 

t "Every" is a contraction of ever each—" each and all" (of two or more 
objects). 

\ M None" is formed from Old-English ne an=not one. 

§ In Anglo-Saxon these words were followed by a noun in the possessive 
(genitive) case : thus, "a hundred sheep "=a hundred of sheep. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Ordinal, which denote in what order things are ar* 
ranged in a series : as, " the first prize ;" " the third day ;" 
" the hundredth night." 

I. The ordinal numerals, with the exception of the first two, are 
formed from the cardinal numerals : thus, fourth, fifth, sixth, 
thousandth, etc. But first and second are not etymologically con- 
nected with one, two. First {—foremost) is the superlative of 
fore. Second is from Latin secundus. 

II. The term multiplicatives is sometimes applied to numerals 
' denoting repetition : as, " twice," or " twofold ;" u thrice," or 

"threefold;" "fifty-fold," " double." etc. 

II. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

79. A qualifying (or descriptive) adjective is one that 
denotes some quality or attribute of the object named by 
the noun : thus — 

A lofty mountain. A running stream. 
i 

I. To this class belongs the great body of adjectives ; for it in- 
cludes the thousands of words expressive of the various qual- 
ities, attributes, and properties which we ascertain either through 
the senses or by a process of thought. 

II. It is needless for grammatical purposes to make any subdi- 
vision of qualifying adjectives ; but it may be useful to give an 
explanation of the following terms, which are sometimes applied 
to certain adjectives of this class: 

1. Proper Adjectives. — These are derived from proper nouns: 
as, u an American idea;" " Platonic love." They are in their 
nature qualifying adjectives, and have nothing peculiar except 
that they are written with an initial capital. 

2. Participial Adjectives. — By a participial adjective* is meant 
a participle used strictly as an adjective : as, " a loving friend ;" 
" an educated man." 

It seems unnecessary to designate such words by a special name 
("participial adjectives"). They have ceased to be participles, 
and may be parsed simply as qualifying adjectives. 

* See page 64. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 41 

3. A compound adjective is formed from two simple words, with 
an intervening hyphen : as, " a white-robed maiden ;" " the straw- 
built shed ;" " a heart-rending scream." It is unnecessary in 
parsing to specify that an adjective is compound, any more than 
that it is primitive or derivative. 



III. Grammatical Form of the Adjective. 

80. Adjectives have but one grammatical form, namely, 
comparison. 

In many languages adjectives are inflected to mark gender, num- 
ber, and case, and in these respects they are made to agree with 
their nouns. A Latin adjective, like bonus (good), followed 
through all its inflections, assumes twelve different forms. In 
the earliest English there were several such inflections. Thus 
the adjective good, preceded by the definite article, was, when 
used with a masculine noun in the nominative case, goda, with 
a feminine noun gode, and with a neuter noun gode; the nom- 
inative plural was godan. But these variations had all disap- 
peared from our speech several centuries ago.* 

81. Comparison is a modification of adjectives (and ad- 
verbs) to express degrees of quantity or quality. 

82. There are three degrees of comparison— the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

83. The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective 
without modification, used to denote simple quantity or 
quality : as, long, righteous. 

84. The comparative degree of an adjective is that modi- 
fication of it by means of which we show that one thing, or 

* "The irreconcilability of the Norman and Saxon modes of inflecting ad- 
jectives compelled the English to discard them both; but the Saxon endings 
of number were not given up till the fifteenth century."— Marsh : Lectures on 
(he English Language. 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

set of things, possesses a certain quality or attribute in a 
greater degree than another thing, or set of things : thus — 

1. My knife is sharper than yours. 

One thing compared with another. 

2. This soldier is taller than those. 

One thing compared with a number of things. 

3. Your parents are richer than mine. 

A set of things compared with a set of things. 

4. These books are larger than that one. 

A set of things compared with one thing. 

85. The superlative degree of an adjective is that modifi- 
cation of it by means of which we show that a certain thing, 
or set of things, possesses some quality or attribute in an ex- 
treme degree, either greater or less, than any other of its class : 
as, " the tallest soldier ; " " the minutest grain/' 

86. Formation. — I. Adjectives of one syllable generally 
form their comparative by suffixing er, and their superlative 
by suffixing est, to the positive :* thus — 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


bold 


bolder 


boldest 


wise 


wiser 


wisest 



II. Adjectives of more than one syllable generally form 
their comparative by joining the adverb more, and their 
superlative by joining the adverb most, with the positive : 
thus — 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

faithful more faithful most faithful 

dangerous more dangerous most dangerous 

I. This is the general rule ; but from it there are frequent de- 
partures. Thus many two-syllabled adjectives ending in y, le y 

* In adding these suffixes the usual rules for spelling derivative words are 
to be observed. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— NOTES. 



43 



ow, and er form their comparative and superlative by suffixing 
er and est : as — 



happy 


happier 


happiest 


able 


abler 


ablest 


shallow 


shallower 


shallowest 


tender 


tenderer 


tenderest 



But it would sound harsh to say prudenter, earnestest. In this 
matter euphony is the guide. 
II. On the other hand, even short adjectives may be compared by 
means of more and most, if the ear is satisfied : thus, " Alfred 
is the most apt of all the pupils." " Give us more ample ground." 

87. Irregular comparison is a mode of marking the de- 
grees of comparison different from the regular mode. The 
following are irregular comparisons : 



08ITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


8UPEBLATIVK. 


good 


better 


best 


weU 


better 


best 


bad \ 


„ 




evil v 


worse 


worst 


ill ) 






little 


less 


least 


many ) 
much ) 


more 


most 


far 


farther 


farthest 


[forth] 


further 


furthest 


near 


nearer 


nearest or next 


nigh 


nigher 


nighest or next 


late 


later or latter 


latest or last 


old 


older or elder 


oldest or eldest 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost 


up 


upper 


upmost 


out 


utter or outer 


utmost, uttermost, or outmost 



NOTES ON IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

Good : Better and lest [bet-est] are the comparative and the superla* 
tive of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon let, a synonym of good. 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

Bad , Worse and worst are the comparative and superlative of the 
obsolete Anglo-Saxon wear, a synonym of bad. 

0b§. — A regular comparative, badder, is found in early English. 

Old : The regular comparative and superlative are used when old is 
contrasted with new ; the irregular forms when it is contrasted with 
young; as, " The older house belongs to the elder brother." But older 
and oldest are often applied to animate beings; elder and eldest never 
to inanimate. 

Obs. — Elder does not now denote greater age so much as the relation of 
precedence ; it cannot be followed by than. 

Late : The regular forms later and latest are opposed to earlier and 
earliest; the irregular forms latter and last are opposed to former and 
first. Last is a compression of late-est. 

Farther, further: Farther, from far, means more distant, and is 
opposed to nearer; as, "I prefer the farther house." Further, from 
forth, means more advanced or additional; as, "I shall mention a 
further reason." 

Inner, inmost, have no positive : down, downmost, and top, topmost, 
have no comparative ; nether, nethermost, are the comparative and su- 
perlative of neath. 

Obs.— The suffix most, in these superlatives, is not the adverb most. It 
is really a double superlative ending, compounded of the two Anglo- 
Saxon endings ma and ost, each of which is equivalent to est. Hence 
foremost=/bre-fma-j-06'£. 

88. Incomparables. — Adjectives that are of absolute or 
superlative signification cannot, if taken in their strict sense, 
be compared: as — 

Dead, perpendicular, empty, round— (adjectives having no shades 

of meaning). 
Perfect, infinite, supreme, universal — (adjectives expressing the 

highest possible degree). 

I, Many of these adjectives are compared in colloquial use, and 
even by good writers, and such comparison may be deemed 
allowable on the theory that these adjectives are not used in 



THE ADJECTIVE.— REVIEW. 



45 



their strict sense. However, we can generally avoid such com- 
parisons. In place of saying "more perfect," "more perpen- 
dicular," etc., we may say "more nearly perfect," "more nearly 
perpendicular," etc. 
II. Some adjectives, as anterior, superior, inferior, senior, junior, 
prior, posterior, etc., suggest the idea of comparison (and they 
are real Latin comparatives), but they do not admit its forms; 
and when a comparison is implied these adjectives are followed 
by to, and not by than, as comparatives usually are : as, " This 
event was anterior to the Revolution." " Your ability is superior 
to mine." 



Classes . 



GENERAL REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES, 
A. 
TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. 
Article 



r Limiting. , 



Pronominal.... 



Definite. 
Indefinite. 

Demonstrative. 
Indefinite. 
Distributive. 
Interrogative and 
Relative. 



Gram. Forms. 
Inflections — 



I Qualifying. 
Comparison only. 
Comparative, -er. 
Superlative, -est. 



f Cardinal. 

Numeral <^ Ordinal. 

[ Multiplicative. 



B. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 
I. Definition. 

1. Office of all adjectives. 

2. Office of qualifying adjectives. 

II. Classification. 

1. Number of classes. 

2. Names of classes 6 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. Limiting Adjectives. 

1. Definition. 

2. Subdivision. 

ct. Articles. 

b. Pronominal adjectives. 

c. Numeral adjectives. 

3. Articles. 

a. Definition. 

b. The — name and use. 

c. An, or a — name and use. 

d. Rules for their use. 

4. Pronominal adjectives. 

a. Definition. 

(1) Demonstratives — example. 

(2) Indefinites — example. 

(3) Distributives — example. 

(4) Interrogatives and relatives — example 

5. Numeral adjectives. 

a. Definition. 

b. Subdivision. 

(1) Cardinals — definition. 

(2) Ordinals — definition. 

(3) Multiplicatives — definition 

IV. Qualifying Adjectives. 

1. Definition. 

V. Grammatical Forms. 

1. Comparison — definition. 

2. Number of degrees. 

a. Positive — definition. 

b. Comparative — definition. 

c. Superlative — definition. 

3. Rules of formation. 

a. Monosyllabic words. 

b. Polysyllabic words. 

4. Adjectives incomparable. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— REVIEW. 47 

c. 

WRITTEN REVIEW. 

1. Give the derivation of the word " adjective." 

2. Explain how an adjective both limits and enlarges the sense of a 
noun. 

3. Write a sentence containing two limiting adjectives ; a sentence 
containing three qualifying adjectives. 

4. Which is preferable, " a historical work " or " an historical work ?" 
State the reason for your preference. 

5. Write a sentence containing two or more proper adjectives. 

6. Explain the meaning of the terms positive, comparative, and super- 
lative. 

7. Write a sentence containing an adjective in each of the degrees 
of comparison. 

8. Copy the following, drawing one line under each adjective, and 
two lines under the word it limits or qualifies. 

The house-dog, on his paws outspread, 

Laid to the fire his drowsy head; 

The cat's dark silhouette on the wall 

A couchant tiger's seemed to fall; 

And, for the winter fireside meet, 

Between the andiron's straddling feet, 

The mug of cider simmered slow, 

The apples sputtered in a row; 

And close at hand the basket stood, ! 

With nuts from brown October's wood.— W hittier. 



48 UTYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE VERB. 
I. Definition. 

89, A verb is a word that predicates'* action or heingi 
as— 

1. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 
At all his jokes, for many a joke had he. 

2. All are but parts of one harmonious whole. 

I. The predication, i. e., the assertion or statement, is made about 
some person or thing, and the word naming that person or thing 
is called the subject of the- verb. 

II. The distinguishing mark of the verb is its possession of gram- 
matical forms to denote varieties of person, number, time, and 
mode of predication. 






II. Classes of Verbs. 



90. Yerbs are divided into two classes : I. Transitive. 
II, Intransitive. 

91, A transitive t verb is one that denotes an action 
terminating on some object : thus — 

1. Richard struck the ball— [action terminating on the object 

named, u ball"]. 

2. Milton wrote Paradise Lost — [action terminating on the object 

named, " Paradise Lost "]. 

* "To predicate," from Latin prcedicare, to tell, assert, declare, or make 
known. 

t " Transitive" is from Latin trans, over, and ire, to go=going or passing 
over, — the idea being that the action, instead of being merely asserted of the 
subject, passes over and affects or terminates on some object. 



THE VERB.— CLASSES. 49 

92. Complement. — A transitive verb does not by itself 
make a complete statement ; it requires a completing term, 
or complement. Some intransitive verbs, also, require a 
completing term, though of a kind different from that re- 
quired by the transitive verb. (See § 94.) 

The complement of any verb is the word or words re- 
quired to complete the statement. The complement of a 
transitive verb is called its object: as, "ball," " Paradise 
Lost," in § 91. 

I. The object of a transitive verb is always a noun (or its equiv- 
alent) in the objective case. 

II. Every transitive verb is an incomplete verb, or a verb of incom- 
plete predication. Thus " Solomon built — " is not a complete 
statement. We ask, " Built what I" The statement may be 
completed in this way : " Solomon built the TempleP Here 
the complement of the transitive verb "built" is the object 
"Temple," a noun in the objective case. 

93. An intransitive verb is one that denotes (1) a state or 
condition, or (2) an action not terminating on an object : as — 

1. Children deep — [state or condition]. 

2. The sea-bird rises as the billows rise — [action not terminating 

on an object, but affecting the agent only]. 

94. Complement, — Most intransitive verbs make com- 
plete statements ; but there are a few intransitive verbs of 
incomplete predication (as be, become, seem, look, appear, 
smell, feel, and the like) ; these require as complement either 
a predicate noun or a predicate adjective: thus — 

1. Mary is oeantiful — [adjective-complement of the verb "is"]. 

2. Elizabeth was queen — [noun-complement of "was"]. 

3. A boy becomes a man — [noun-complement of "becomes"]. 

4. Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved — [adjective-com- 

plement of " seemed "]. 

5. Macbeth looked pale — [adjective-complement of "looked"], 

c 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. Henry VIII. appeared every inch a Icing — [noun-complement 

of "appeared"]. 

7. The rose smells sweet — [adjective-complement of " smells "z= 

the rose is sweet to the smell]. 

Note. — Verbs of this class have been variously designated neuter verbs, cop- 
ula verbs, and apposition verbs ; but there is no need of a special designation for 
them. They are simply intransitive verbs of incomplete predication. 

95. Double Use. — Many verbs expressing action may be 
used either transitively or intransitively, but with a different 
meaning in each case : thus — 



The baby speaks already — [intransitive]. 

The man speaks several languages — [transitive]. 



2 \ The ship sinks — [intransitive]. 
: ( The pirate sinks the ship — [transitive], 

I. In the first examples the action denoted by the verb (" speaks ") 
is asserted in an indefinite or general manner ; in the transitive 
use the action is narrowed down to a particular application 
("speaks several languages"). 

II. In the second examples the verb used transitively signifies to 
cause to do that which the intransitive verb expresses : " sinks 
the ship "^causes the ship to sink.* 

96, An auxiliary verb is one used to assist in conjugating 
other verbs : as, shall, may, should. 

Note.— For the definition of conjugation, see § 140. The auxiliary verbs 
do not form a class distinct from verbs transitive or intransitive, but 
are themselves either transitive or intransitive. 



NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

I. Compounds* — Many intransitive verbs when followed by partic- 
ular prepositions become transitive and take an object. Thus — 

The baby laughs. 

We laughed at the clown. 

* This example belongs to a numerous class of verbs which some gramma 
rians have called causatives. 



THE VERB.— EXERCISE. 51 

In such instances the preposition seems to be so closely united in 
meaning with the verb as to form a kind of compound verb. Care 
should be taken, however, not to confound such compounds (which 
have a transitive force) with intransitive verbs followed by an ordinary 
prepositional phrase : as, " The bird sang on the bough." The test 
of a real compound is that the verb may be used in the passive voice, 
the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb. Thus: 
the " Robbers fell-v.pon him " (active) : " He was fallen-upon by robbers'' 
(passive). 

II. Reflexive Terbs. — Transitive verbs, when followed by the re- 
flexive pronouns, myself, himself, etc., are said to be used reflexicely ; 
that is. the agent is spoken of as acting on himself. In the case of 
many transitive verbs we have almost ceased to repeat the pronoun, 
and so the verb seems complete without an object. I wash [myself], the 
covr feeds [herself], he awctkes [himself], are used intransitively; but 
I icash the floor, you/<^7 the cattle, he awoke me, are used transitively. 

HI. Cognate Objective, — Some intransitive verbs take as comple- 
ment a noun in the objective case, with a meaning akin to that of the 
verb : as, " to run a race" " to die the death" etc. An object of this 
kind is called the cognate object. 



EXERCISE 6. 

Assign each verb to its class transitive or intransitive : 

1. The general sent a message. 2. The wild cataract leaps in glory. 3. I 
shot the albatross. 4. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 5. I thought 
ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards, to avenge even a 
look that threatened her with insult. 6. There are more worlds than one. 7. 
Row pale you look ! 8. Richard reads a book. 9. Robert reads well. 10. He 
was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again 11. 
Whatever is is right. 12. Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap. 
13. We all rejoiced at his success. 14. The ship struck on a rock. 15. I struck 
myself with a hammer. 16. He struck the ball hard. 17. He has not shaved 
this morning. IS. The barber shaved me yesterday. 19. Get your umbrella. 
20. Get out of my way. 21. I withdraw my claim. 22. The deputation with- 
drew. 23. Every one laughed. 24. They laughed him to scorn. 25. He ran a 
race. 26. He ran a thorn into his finger. 27. Keep where you are. 28. Keep 
your place. 29. He roused up at the sound. 30. He launched out into all sorts 
of extravagance. 31. The horsemen spread over the plain. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 



III. Verbals. — Infinitives and Participles. 

Note. — Before proceeding to consider the grammatical forms of the 
verb, it will be convenient to notice two kinds of verb-like words, or 
verbals, which are much used in the formation of the English verb. 

97. The verbals are verb-forms, partaking of the nature 
of the verb, and having in addition the use of some other 
part of speech. 

98. The verbals are of two kinds: I. Infinitives. II. 
Participles. 



I. Infinitives. 

99, The infinitive is a verbal noun. It merely names the 
action or state which the verb asserts : as, to ready reading. 

100i There are two simple forms of the infinitive: 

1. The verb in its simplest form, and generally preceded 
by the preposition to : as, to walk, to run. 

2. The infinitive in ing, called the gerund. 

I. " Infinitive " signifies unlimited — that is, unlimited by person 
and number, and hence incapable of predication. In contrast 
with the infinitive a verb-word that expresses predication is 
called & finite verb, i. e., one limited by person and number. 

II. The infinitive is often spoken of as a mood, but this is to imply 
that the infinitive is, in the full sense, a verb, which it is not ; for 
it lacks the distinguishing mark of a verb, namely, the function 
of asserting. The infinitive has, indeed, some of the properties 
of the verb — for example, it may take an object : as, " To read 
good hooks is profitable " — but its principal use is as a noun. 

III. It is the usual practice to employ the infinitive with the prefix 
to in order to designate any particular verb. Thus the word 
which asserts the action writing is called the verb to write ; the 
word which asserts heing is called the verb to he. By this it is 
not to be understood that the words to write, to he, are them- 



THE VERB.— GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 53 

selves verbs, but merely that they are names of the action or 
state asserted by the verb. 
IV. In form the gerund is identical with the present participle, 
but is distinguished from that verbal by having the use of a 
noun. Thus, " I like reading" (=1 like to read). "You will be 
rewarded for studying mathematics." 

101 • The root of a verb is its simple form as seeu in the 
infinitive without the prefix to : as, torite, read, stand. 

The term root -infinitive will be used to denote the simple infin- 
itive without to, its so-called sign* This form is much em- 
ployed in making the compound tenses. 

II. Participles. 

102. The participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or 
participates in the nature both of the verb and of the ad- 
jective : thus — 

1. The water is running. Water running through a gravelly soil 

is clear. 

2. The good are loved. Warren died loved by all. 

103. There are two participles formed by inflection — the 
present participle and the past participle. 

I. The present participle of all verbs is formed by suffixing ing 
to the root : as, walk, walking ; write, writ big. 

II. The past participle is generally formed by suffixing ed to the 
root : as, walk, walked. But some verbs do not form their past 
participle in this way : as, write, written; tell, told. Such verbs 
are called irregular (see § 141). 



IV. Grammatical Forms of the Verb. 

104, The grammatical forms of the verb are : I. Voice. 
II. Mood. III. Tense. IV. Person. V. Number. 

* For the origin of the infinitive with to, see Appendix, page 252. 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

105, How denoted, — These forms are denoted in four 
ways: 

1. By inflection: as, "Thou lovely" "He loves;" "We loved." 

2. By radical change : as, " She tells;" " She told." 

3. By auxiliaries : as, " We have loved ;" " They will love." 

4. By grammatical relation ; that is, by reference to the gram- 
matical forms of the subject y v?ith which the verb agrees. Thus 
in the sentence " i" walk," the verb " walk " is parsed as in the 
first person, singular number, because its subject "I" is in that 
person and number; but in "They walk," "walk" is parsed as 
in the third person plural. 



I. VOICE. 

106, Voice is a grammatical form of the transitive verb, 
expressing whether the subject names the actor or the re- 
cipient of the action. 

There are two voices: I. The active voice. II. The 
passive VOICE. 

107, Active, — A verb in the active voice represents the 
subject as acting upon an object : as — 

Watt invented the steam-engine. 

108, Passive, — A verb in the passive voice represents 
the subject as receiving an action : as — 

The steam-engine was invented by Watt. 

The passive voice is formed by uniting with the past 
participle of any transitive verb the various parts of the 
auxiliary verb to be. Thus — 

I am struck. The Persians were defeated. They will be seen. 

I. The passive voice is a grammatical expedient for converting 
the object of a transitive verb into its subject. What in the 
active voice is represented as the object, receiving or enduring 



THE VERB.— MOOD. 55 

the action expressed by the verb, becomes the subject, but is 
still represented as receiving or enduring the action expressed 
by the verb ; so that in each case the same or nearly the same 
meaning is conveyed. Thus — 

{Active) — The dog bit the man (or him). 
(Passive) — The man (or he) was bitten by the dog. 

II. Intransitive verbs have, strictly speaking, no passive voice; 
for in such verbs the action is confined to the agent (subject), 
and therefore no object is acted upon. 

III. The English language has no inflections for the passive voice, 
which accordingly is denoted by composition, i. e., by the use of 
auxiliaries. In some languages, such as Latin and Greek, voice 
is denoted by distinctive terminations. Thus, Latin doceo (act- 
ive) =1 teach; doceor (passive) =1 am taught. 



II. MOOD. 

109. Mood (or moiie) is a grammatical form denoting the 
style or manner of predication.* Thus — 

1. The earth revolves around the sun — (assertion of a reality). 

2. We may go to Europe next year — (assertion of a possibility). 

3. If we go, we will return in the autumn — (assertion of a condition, 
or supposition). 

4. Go away — (assertion of a command). 

110. Exclusive of the infinitive, there are four moods: 
namely — I. The indicative. II. The potential. III. The 
subjunctive. IV. The impeeative. 

111. The indicative mood is used in the statement of a 
fact, or of a matter taken as a fact. 



l ? 



* "Mood," says Bain, "means the manner of the action." This is not 
strictly correct. The manner of the action (or state) is expressed by adverbs; 
but it is the office of the grammatical form called " mood" to denote manner 
of predication. The different moods show the manner in which the action or 
state expressed by the verb is connected in thought with the thing named by 
the subject. 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

I. The assertion may be respecting an actual event past, present, 
or future : as — 

1. The Romans were victorious. 

2. You are writing a letter. 

3. We shall set out to-morrow. 

II. The assertion may be of a supposition assumed as a fact : as — 

If he did that [which he did], he was unwise. 

Note. — This conditional form of the indicative mood is not to be con- 
founded with the subjunctive mood. 

112, The potential mood is used in the statement of 
something possible, contingent, obligatory, etc. 

The potential mood expresses, not what the thing named by the 
subject does or is, but what it may, might, can, could, must, icould, 
or should do or be : as — 

1. James can write a letter. ■ 

2. We may be happy yet. 

3. Children should obey their parents. 

113, The subjunctive mood is used in the statement of 
something merely thought of. Thus — 

1. If he were here, he would act differently. 

2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

I. This mood is called " subjunctive," because the assertion made 
by means of it is always subjoined (as a condition, etc.) to a prin- 
cipal statement. 

II. A verb in the subjunctive mood is generally (though not al- 
ways) preceded by one of the conjunctions, if, that, lest, though, 
unless, etc. But — 

(1) The conjunction is not a part of the mood itself; for an asser- 
tion may be made subjunctively by merely putting the verb or 
auxiliary before the subject : thus, " Were he"=if he icere; " Had 
he gone"=if he had gone. 

(2) The conjunctions if, that, etc., may precede the indicative mood 
when the verb is used to make a supposition assumed as a fact* 



THE VERB.— TENSE. 57 

114. The imperative mood is used in the statement of a 
command or request : thus — 

1. Charge, Chester, charge ! 

2. Give us this day our daily bread. 



III. TENSE. 

115. Tense* is a grammatical form of the verb denoting 
the time of the action or event asserted and the degree of 
its completeness. 

116. Primary Tenses, — There are three divisions of time 
to which an action or event may be referred — the present, 
the past, and the future. Hence arise three primary or 
absolute tenses : ■ I. The present. II. The past. III. The 

FUTURE. 

117. Secondary Tenses. — An action or event may be 
spoken of as completed, or perfected, with reference to 
each of the three divisions of time. Hence arise three sec- 
ondary or relative tenses : I. The present perfect. II. 
The past perfect. III. The future perfect. 

The present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses are 
formed by prefixing to the past participle of a given verb the 
present, past, and future tenses of the auxiliary verb to have in 
the mood required. 



IV. MOODS WITH THEIR TENSES. 

I. Indicative. 

118. The indicative mood has all the six tenses. 



* "Tense" is derived from Latin lempus, time, through French temps. 

C2 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

119. The present tense represents an action or event as 
taking place in present time : thus — 

I see the flower. You smell its perfume. 

120. The present perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at the present time, or in a period of 
which the present forms a part : thus — 

1. i" have walked six miles to-day. 

2. He has draught many captives home to Rome c 

121 ■ The past (sometimes called the preterite) tense rep- 
resents that an action or event took place in time wholly 
past: thus — 

1. Columbus discovered America. 

2. 1 found her in her room reading Plato. 

122. Formation, — The past tense is formed either by 
inflection or by radical change. 

1. Regular verbs (see § 141) form their past tense by the addition 
of the suffix ed to the root; as, discover, discover-ed.* 

II. Irregular verbs (see § 141) form their past tense in some other 
way; as, break, broke ; find, found. 

123. The past perfect tense represents a past action or 
event as completed at or before a certain past time : thus — 

1. 1 had written three letters before breakfast yesterday. 

2. The steamer had left when the mail arrived. 

124. The future tense represents an action or event as 
yet to take place: thus — 

I will see you again, and your hearts shall rejoice. 



* The inflection ed, used to form the past tense of all regular verbs, repre- 
sents a more primitive dede=did y the past tense of do: hence, "I loved "=I 
love-did. 



THE VERB.— MOODS AND TENSES. 59 

The future tense is formed by combining the auxiliaries 
shall or will with the root-infinitive of a given verb. 

The auxiliary verb " shall" is a remnant of an ancient verbal root, 
meaning to owe ; " will " is a tense form of the verb to will, to de- 
sire. In Anglo-Saxon, ic sceal and ic icille were followed by an 
infinitive : thus, " ic sceal ninian," that is, literally, I owe to take; 
"ic wille niruan," / will to take. 

125. The future perfect tense represents that an action 
or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet 
future: thus — 

I shall have finished my letter by noon. 

II. Potential. 

126. The potential mood has four tenses: the present, 
the present perfect, the past, and the past perfect. 

These so-called " tenses," however, by no means represent the re- 
lations of time which their names denote. 

127. The present potential is formed by joining the aux- 
iliaries may, can, or must with the root-infinitive of a given 
verb. 

I. This tense denotes the present power, possibility, liberty, or neces- 
sity of an action or event either present or future: as — 

You may leave [now]. It may rain [to-morrow]. The boy can write 
[now]. She must go [now or next week]. 

II. The verbs may, can, and must, which are now used merely as 
auxiliaries of the present potential, were in early English prin- 
cipal or independent verbs in the indicative mood; and the 
infinitive (without to) was dependent on them. Thus : " I may 
walk v =I may* (or am able) to walk. " You cant write"=You 
are able to write. 

* Anglo-Saxon, morgan, to be able. 

t Anglo-Saxon, cunnan, to know how (and hence to be able). 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

128. The present perfect potential denotes present pos- 
sibility, liberty, or necessity, with respect to an action or 
event regarded as past : as — 

He may have written— It is possible that he wrote or has written. 
I must have written yesterday =It is (now) a matter of necessity 
that I wrote yesterday. 

129. The past potential is formed by joining the auxil- 
iaries might, could, would, or should with the root-infinitive 
of a given verb. 

I. "Might" is the past tense of may; "could," of can; "would," 
of will; and "should," of shall. 

II. This tense expresses a variety of meanings. Thus, it may de- 
note— 

1. A past possibility : as — 

I could not reach the train, for I was delayed by the way. 

2. A present possibility or liberty : as — 

You might oblige me, if you would. 

3. A future contingency : as — 

I should return next week, if I were to leave to-day. 

4. A customary past action : as — 

There would she sit and weep for hours. 

5. A duty independent of time : as — 

Children should obey their parents. 

130. The past perfect potential denotes ability, possibil- 
ity, or liberty, with respect to some past action or event 
which (it is implied) was not performed or did not occur : 
as — 

I could have helped you, if you had asked me [i. e., I was able to 
help you, but (impliedly) I did not, because you did not ask me]. 

III. Subjunctive. 

131. The subjunctive mood has two tenses: the present 
and the past. 



THE VERB.— MOODS AND TENSES. 61 

132, The present subjunctive is a simple tense having 
the same forms as the present indicative, except that the 
personal inflections St (second person) and S (third person) 
are omitted.* It is usually introduced by the conjunctions 
if, though, that, etc. 

This tense often has & future reference ; that is, it denotes a present 
uncertainty respecting a supposed future action or event: as — 

If I go [=if I shall go], I shall go alone. 
Beware lest you fail [=lest you shall fail]. 

133. The past subjunctive has the same forms as the 
past indicative, except that the personal inflection St (sec- 
ond person) is omitted. 

The principal use of this tense is to express : 

1. A supposition with respect to something present, and at the 
same time to imply a denial of the thing supposed : thus — 

If I were rich [implied : which I am not], I would give freely. 
It is also used to express a wish : 
O had I the wings of a dove ! 

In this construction the conjunction is omitted and the subject 
follows the verb. 

2. A consequence : as — 

If it were done when 'tis done, then 't were well 
It were done quickly. 

IV. Imperative. 

134. The imperative mood has only the present tense. 
This has respect to the time of giving the command, etc. ; 
the time of its performance is necessarily future. 

V. Compound Verbals. 

135, The infinitive, in addition to its simple form, called 
the present infinitive (as, to write, to walk), has a compound 

* The verb to be is an exception. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

form, called the perfect injmitwe : as, to heme written, to 
have walked. 

The infinitive present and perfect are sometimes spoken of as 
tenses; but as the infinitive cannot predicate, it can have no 
relation to any time in particular; and the only distinction 
between " present " and " perfect " as applied to this verbal is 
that of the incompleteness (indefiniteness) or the completeness of 
the action or state named by the infinitive. Thus — 

(Present or indefinite)— He wishes to write. He wisfr&d to write. He will 
wish to write. 

(Perfect)— He is said to have written [already, yesterday, a year ago, etc.]. 

136. The gerund, or infinitive in ing, in addition to its 
simple form, has a compound form, made up of the gerund 
of the verb to have and the past participle of a given verb. 

(Simple) — I like reading. 

(Compound) — Through having lost his book, he could not learn his 
lesson. 

137. Participles. — Besides the present and past partici- 
ples, a compound or perfect participle is formed by prefix- 
ing the present participle of the auxiliary to have to the 
past participle of a given verb : as, having walked, having 
written. 



NOTES ON THE FORMS IN -ING. 

I. Number of Forms. — The forms in ing present some difficulty 
from the fact that this termination is found in no fewer than four 
kinds of words, each of which, having a distinct function, is a distinct 
part of speech. These forms are — 

1. The infinitive in ing, or gerund, which is a verbal noun. Thus— 
Parting is such sweet sorrow. 

2. The noun in ing. Thus — 

There came a moaning on the wind— the sighing of the tempest. 



THE VERB.— NOTES ON FORMS IN -ING. 63 

3. The participle in ing, which is a verbal adjective. Thus — 

Passing the Rubicon, Caesar advanced on Rome. 

4. The adjective in ing.* Thus — 

A startling cry came from the house. 
He is a man of striking appearance. 

II. Tests. — The following tests will aid the student in determining 
to which of these classes a particular ing form belongs : 

a. The infinitive in ing (1) may be the subject or the object of a verb, 
(2) it may take a complement (object, or predicate noun or adjective), 
and (3) it may be preceded by a possessive adjective or possessive noun. 

In (1) it resembles the noun in ing, and in (2) the participle ; but (3) in 
connection with (2) is a peculiarity of the gerund alone. 

Thus, in the sentence 

His making money is no proof of merit, 

"making" is a gerund: it is the subject of "is," has for its object 

" money," and is preceded by the possessive adjective " his." 

o. The noun in ing (1) has the usual distinguishing marks of the 
noun ; (2) it cannot, like the infinitive and the participle, take a com- 
plement ; and (3) it may be preceded by the article. 

In (1) it differs wholly from the adjective and participle, and in (3) it 
differs from all the other ing forms. 



* The several ing forms originated as follows : 

1. The infinitive in ing is a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive, which 
in the nominative and accusative cases ended in an. Thus, writan, to write, 
became writen, writin, and finally writing. It is probable that the existence of 
a class of abstract nouns in ing (see 2 below) facilitated the change from in 
to ing. 

2. The noun in ing is originally a modified form of the Anglo-Saxon noun 
in ung : as, buildung (=building), cleansung (=cleansing). In Anglo-Saxon 
there was a distinct class of nouns with this termination, and many of our 
nouns in ing are descendants of these. Many more, however, have since been 
formed from verbs on the analogy of these nouns. 

3. The present participle in Anglo-Saxon ended in ende or ande: as, lufigende 
=loviug, sayande= saying. This suffix subsequently passed through the sev- 
eral stages and (or e?id), in, inge, and finally ing. 

4. The adjective in ing is derived from the present participle in ing. It is 
a participle that has dropped the implication of time and action, and retained 
only its attributive meaning. Thus, (< a charming face," u a cunning boy." 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

Thus, in the sentence 
There came a moaning on the wind— the sighing of the tempest, 
" moaning " is a noun : it is the subject of " came," but it cannot take 
an object, and it is limited by the article "a." 

c. The participle in ing (1) is an attributive word belonging to some 

noun, and (2) it expresses action (or state) and time. 

In (1) it differs from all the other ing forms save the adjective, but in (2) 
it differs from the adjective, for that part of speech expresses quality, 
not action or time. 

Thus, in the sentence 

Fussing the Kubicon, Caesar advanced on Rome, 
"passing" is a participle, because it is an adjunct of a noun (" Cae- 
sar"), and because it expresses action and time. 

d. The adjective in ing (1) is an attributive word belonging to some 

noun ; (2) it admits of comparison. 

In (1) it resembles the participle only ; in (2) it differs from all the other 
ing forms. 

Thus, in the sentence 

A man of more striking appearance I never saw, 

" striking " is an adjective : it qualifies " appearance," and, joined with 

" more," is in the comparative degree.* 



V. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

138, Number and person in verbs are grammatical forms 
expressing the agreement of a verb with its subject. 

139 1 There are two numbers in verbs — the singular and 
the plural, corresponding to the numbers in nouns : as, 
" The man walks ;" " The men walk" 

* The examination given above of the resemblances and differences in the 
four forms in ing is not exhaustive (the aim being merely to present salient 
characteristics as tests in classification) ; but enough is stated to enable the 
student to deduce a complete exhibit of the points of agreement and disagree- 
ment. 






THE VERB.— NUMBER AND PERSON. 65 

There are three persons in verbs, corresponding to the 
three persons of the personal pronouns. 

Person and number in verbs are denoted almost wholly 
by grammatical relation. 

I. The only inflections of person and number are : 

1. Est (or st) for the second person singular (solemn and poetic 
style) in the present and past tenses of the indicative mood: 
"I walk;* "Thou walkes£;" u Thou walk^s£." 

2. Es (or s) for the third person singular of the indicative pres- 
ent : " She crosses;" " He walks." 

Obs. — An old termination th for the third person, singular, present indic- 
ative (as, " He walked") is still employed in the solemn or poetic style, but 
is obsolete in common usage. 

II. By the figure enallage* the second person plural is in ordinary 
discourse substituted for the second person singular: as, " You 
walk," not "Thou walked." It is pcwsed as in the second person 
plural ; and when one person only is denoted, the verb and pro- 
noun may be called " plural used for the singular." 

III. The form in st with the pronoun thou is still used in the solemn 
or poetic style. The Society of Friends, or Quakers, also employ 
the singular number in familiar discourse, though generally 
without the personal ending st: as, "What thou said;" "If 
thou should come." 

IV. As the imperative is the mood of commanding, and as a com- 
mand must be addressed to the person who is to obey it, an 
imperative verb can, strictly speaking, be used only in the sec- 
ond person. Thus : " Go [you, sing, or pi.] to bed." 

"When we express our will in connection with a subject of the first 
or second person, we employ the following substitutes for the 
imperative mood : 

1. The subjunctive mood: as— 

1. Confide we in ourselves alone. 

2. Laugh those that can, weep those that may. 



* Enallage, a figure of syntax, is the substitution of one part of speech, or 
of one grammatical form, for another. 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. " Let " with an infinitive : as — 
Let us pray. Let him be heard. 

The latter, however, are not imperative forms of the verbs " pray * 
and "hear;" but infinitives used as complements of the imper- 
ative "let" [you]. 



VI. CONJUGATION. 

140. Conjugation is the systematic arrangement of a verb 
according to its various grammatical forms. 

141. There are two conjugations: I. The regular.* II. 
The irregular. These two conjugations are distinguished 
by the mode of forming the past tense (indicative) and the 
past participle. 

I. A regular verb is one whose past tense and past participle 
are formed by suffixing ed to its root:* as, (root) love; (past 
tense) loved; (past participle) loved. 

Obs. — In suffixing ed care must be taken to observe the rules for spelling 
derivative words. 

II. An irregular verbt is one whose past tense or past participle, 
or both, are not formed by suffixing ed to the root : as, (root) 
take ; (past tense) took ; (past participle) taken. 

142. The principal parts of a verb are: I. The tense 
form of the present indicative. II. The tense form of 

the PAST INDICATIVE. III. The PAST PARTICIPLE. 



* It would be more accurate to consider d, rather than ed, as the inflection 
of the past tense, since either d alone is added to the root (as in love-d, save-d), 
or when ed is used the e is a mere connecting vowel of euphony. 

t A verb is called "irregular," not because in the formation of its past tense 
and its past participle it presents any arbitrary departure from a srpposed 
regular or normal method, but because in the irregular conjugation the vari- 
ous methods of forming these parts are not reducible to one rule. 



THE VERB.— CONJUGATION. 



67 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

143. The auxiliary verbs are: he, do, have, shall, will, 
can, may, and must. 

I. Be, do, will, and have, besides being used as auxiliaries, are also 
principal verbs, and as such have the full conjugation. The 
parts given below are those only that are used as auxiliaries. 

II. Shall, may, can, and must are auxiliary verbs only, and are de- 
fective. 

III. The only tenses that do not require the aid of an auxiliary in 
their formation are : in the active voice, the present and past of 
the indicative and of the subjunctive, and the imperative mood. 
The passive voice is formed wholly by aid of the auxiliary to be. 

TO BE. 
AUXILIARY OF THE PASSIYE VOICE A>D OF THE PROGRESSIVE FOR3L* 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present — am. Past — was. Past Participle — been.f 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

BLNGTHiAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ; 3. They are. 



1. I was, 

2. Thou wast,t 

3. He was ; 



Past Tense. 



1 . We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 



* See § 145. 

t The forms of the verb to be are derived from at least two sources: am, 
teas, were, etc., are from the Anglo-Saxon wesan, to be; be, been, etc., are from 
Anglo-Saxon beon, to be. 

X Wert is sometimes used indicatively for wast. 



68 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Future Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1 . We shall or will be, 

2. You shall or will be, 

3. They shall or will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have beea. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 



1. I have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 

3. He has been ; 

1. I had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 

3. He had been ; 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
I may be, 1. We may be, 

Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 
I might be, 1. We might be, 

Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

He might be ; 3. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
I may have been, I. We may have been, 

Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 



Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 



THE VERB.— CONJUGATION. QQ 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be (you — thou, ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present — to be. Perfect — to have been. (Gerunds) — being ; having been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present — being. Past — been. Perfect — having been. 



TO DO. 

Present : — Sign of the Present Emphatic and Interrogative.* 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does ; 3. They do. 

Past : — Sign of the Past Emphatic and Interrogative. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did ; 3. They did. 

When used as a principal verb :— Principal parts : present, do ; past, did ; 
past participle, done. Infinitives : present, to do ; perfect, to have done ; 
(gerunds) doing; having done. Participles: present, doing; past, done; 
perfect, having done.t 

TO HAVE. 

Present ; — Sign of the Present Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 

3. He has ; 3. They have. 

Past: — Sign of the Perfect Tense. 

1. I had, 1. We'bad, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He had; 3. They had. 

* See §§ 146, 147. 

t Do, as used in the expression, How do you do? is a totally different verb : 
this "do" comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb dugan, to profit or prosper. 
Hence, How do you do? means, How do you prosper? That will tfo=That will 
prosper or succeed. 



70 ETYMOLGOY. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal parts : present, have; past, had ; 
past participle, had. Infinitives : present, to have ; perfect, to have had ; 
{gerunds) having ; having had. Participles : present, having ; past, had ; per- 
fect, having had. 

CAN. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

SINGULAR. PLUEAL. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can ; 3. They can. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I could,* 1. We could, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. He could ; 3. They could. 



MAY. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 

3. He may ; 3. They may. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 
8. He might ; 3. They might. 



SHALL. 

Present : — Sign of the Future Tense. 

1. I shall, 1. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 2. You shall, 

3. He shall ; 3, They shall. 

Past: — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should ; 3. They should. 

* "Could" is the past tense of can. The I is inserted in could in imitation 
of would and should, but it is a false analogy. The old form is coude. 



THE VERB.— CONJUGATION. 1\ 



WILL. 

Present : — Sign of the Future Tense. 

SINGULAE. PLUEAL. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. You will, 

3. He will ; 3. They will. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would ; 3. They would. 

Wken used as a principal verb : — Principal parts : present, will ; past, 
rilled : past participle, willed. Infinitives : present, to will ; perfect, to 
lave willed ; {gerunds) willing ; having willed. Participles : present, willing ; 
oast- willed ; perfect, having willed. 



MUST. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I must, 1. We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must ; 3. They must. 



PARADIGM* OP THE REGULAR VERBS. 
TO LOVE. 

Active Voice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present— love. Past— loved. Past participle— loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLUEAL. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 

* A paradigm is the full conjugatiou of a verb. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

Past Tense. . 

SINGULAR. PLURAli. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; 8. They shall or will love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, , 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved 9 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

1 . I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 



THE VERB.—COXJUGA TIOX. 



73 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I love, 

2. If thou love, 

3. If he love ; 

1. If I loved, 

2. If thou loved, 

3. If he loved ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 

3. If the v love. 



Past Tense. 



1. If we loved, 

2. If you loved, 

3. If they loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Love (you — thou, ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present — to love. Perfect — to have loved. (Gerunds) — loving ; having loved. 



Present— loving. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Perfect — having loved. 







TO BE LOVED. 








Passive Voice. 






INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Future Tense. 


I am 




I was 




I shall or will 




Thou art 




Thou wast 




Thou shalt or wilt 




He is 
We are 


loved. 


He was 
We were 


- loved. 


He shall or will 
We shall or will 


.be 


You are 




You were 




You shall or will 




They are . 




They were . 




They shall or will . 




Present Perfect. 


Past Perfect. 


Future Perfect. 


I have 


- 


I had 




I shall or will 




Thou hast 




Thou hadst 




Thou shalt or wilt 




He has 


been 


He had 


been 


He shall or will 




We have 


loved. 


We had 


loved. 


We shall or will 


i 


You have 




You had 




You shall or will 




They have 


J 


They had 


- 




They shall or wi 


11 J 





have 
been 
loved. 



D 



74 






ETYMOLOGY. 






Present. 


POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Past 


I may or can 
Thou mayst or canst 
He may or can 
We may or can 
You may or can 
They may or can 


■ be loved. 


I might, etc., 
Thou mightst, etc., 
He might, " 
We might, " 
You might, " 
They might, " 


• be loved. 


Present Perfect. 




Past Perfect. 


I may, etc. , have 
Thou mayst, etc. , have 
He may, " " 
We may, " " 
You may, " " 
They may, " " : 


- been loved. 


I might, etc., have 
Thou mightst, etc. , have 
He might, " " 
We might, " " 
You might, " " 
They might, " " . 


- been loved. 


Present. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past 


If I be 






If I were 




If thou be 






If thou were 




If he " 
If we " 


- loved 




If he 

If we " 


loved. 


If you " 
If they " . 








If you " 

If they " . 







Present — to be loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be (you — thou, ye) loved. 

INFINITIVES. 

Perfect — to have been loved, 
loved; having been loved. 



(Gerunds) — being 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present — being loved. Past — loved. Perfect — having been loved. 



MODEL OP CONJUGATION OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Note. — The mode of formation of the compound parts of an ir- 
regular verb is precisely the same as that of a regular verb ; but the 
irregularity of the past and past participle renders it desirable to 
illustrate the paradigm of the verb, and to practise pupils therein. 



TEE VERB.— CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 75 

TO SEE. 

Actire Toice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present — see. Past — saw. Past Participle — seen. 

Synopsis of the Verb "To See" in the Third Person Singular 
of all the moods and tenses in the active voice. 

Indicative He sees, he saw, he shall or will see, he has seen, he had seen, 

he shall or will have seen. 
Potential... '..He may see, he might see, he may have seen, he might have seen. 
Subjunctive... If he see, if he saw. 
Imperative.... See (you — thou, ye). 

Synopsis of the Verb " To See " in the First Person Plural of 
all the Moods and Tenses in the Passive Voice. 

Indicative We are seen, we were seen, we shall or will be seen, we have been 

seen, we had been seen, we shall or will have been seen. 

Potential We may be seen, we might be seen, we may have been seen, we 

might have been seen. 

Subjunctive... If we be seen, if we were seen. 

Imperative.... Be (you — thou, ye) seen. 



FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 

144. Besides tlie common style of the verb, several 
special modes of conjugation are used to express particular 
meanings. The principal of these are : (1) The pkogressive. 
(2) The emphatic. (3) The inteekogative. 

I. Progressive Form. 

145, The progressive form of a verb is that which rep- 
resents the continuance of the action or state asserted by 
the verb : as, " I am writing;" " He icas sleeping." 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its present 
participle with the variations of the auxiliary verb to be. 



76 



ETYMOLOGY. 



TO LEARN. 
In the Progressive Form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD- 

Present Tense 1. I am learning. 2. Thou art learning. 3. He is learn- 
ing; etc. 
Post Tense 1. I was learning. 2. Thou wast learning. 3. He was 

learning; etc. 
Future Tense 1. I shall or will be learning. 2. Thou shalt or wilt be 

learning. 3. He shall or will be learning ; etc. 
Present Perfect. .A. I have been learning. 2. Thou hast been learning. 3. He 

has been learning ; etc. 
Past Perfect 1. I had been learning. 2. Thou hadst been learning. 

3. He had been learning ; etc. 
Future Perfect,...!. I shall or will have been learning. 2. Thou shalt or wilt 

have been learning. 3. He shall or will have been 

learning ; etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense 1. I may be learning. 2. Thou mayst be learning. 3. He 

may be learning ; etc. 
Past Tense 1. I might be learning. 2. Thou mightst be learning. 3. He 

might be learning ; etc. 
Present Perfect...!. I may have been learning. 2. Thou mayst have been 

learning. 3. He may have been learning; etc. 
Past Perfect 1. I might have been learning. 2. Thou mightst have been 

learning. 3. He might have been learning ; etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense 1. If I be learning. 2. If thou be learning. 3. If he be 

learning; etc. 
Past Tense 1. If I were learning. 2. If thou were learning. 3. If he 

were learning ; etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense 2. Be learning, or do be learning; etc. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present To be learning. Perfect — To have been learning. (6rer- 

und) — Being learning.* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Being learning.* Past — Been learning. Perfect — Having 

been learning. 



* Theoretical forms not used. 



THE VERB.— NOTES ON THE PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE. 77 

NOTES ON THE PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE. 

I. A progressive form for the passive voice, in the present and past 
tenses indicative, is made by joining the present and past tenses in- 
dicative of the verb to be with the present passive participle : as — 

The house is being built. The book was being printed. 

These are two tenses selected from the various tense-combinations 
which might be made by uniting the variations of the verb to be with 
the present passive participle.* These two alone are used, because the 
other verb-phrases are intolerably harsh : thus, " He shall be being loved" 

II. An old mode of forming the progressive passive is illustrated in 
the phrases — 

The house is building. The book is printing. 
This method of combination, which consists in the union of the 
verb to be and the gerund of a given verb, is now little used. 

III. It is important to understand the real character of such forms 
as "building," "printing," in the phrases given above, as these forms 
have sometimes been mistaken for the t; present participle used in a pas- 
sive sense." In early English these forms were written "a-building," 
f a-printing :" as — 

"Forty-six years was this temple abuildinge."—Tyndale. 

The particle "a" in "a-building" is a contracted form of the An- 
glo-Saxon preposition an=o?i or in : hence, " a-building "==«i building. 
From this analysis it becomes manifest that the form " building " is 
not the present participle, but the gerund. 

It results that the mode of expression exemplified in " The house is, 
was, will be building " (if regarded as elliptical for " The house is, etc., 
a-building"), is perfectly grammatical. It is good native English, and 
is preferable to the combination "The house is being built;" and on 
these grounds it is a loss that this form, under an erroneous notion of 
its origin, is now all but obsolete. 

* These two tense forms are of comparatively recent introduction (they 
came into use less than a century ago), and by some are deemed bad English. 
They are, however, freely used by many of the best writers, and may be regard- 
ed as established. 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. Emphatic Form* 

146. The emphatic form of a verb is made by joining do 
and did with the infinitive (without to) : as, " I do learn." 
" I did learn." 

This combination is found only in the present and the 
past indicative (active), and in the imperative. 

Present. — I do learn, thou dost learn, he does learn, etc. 
Past. — I did learn, thou didst learn, he did learn, etc. 
Imperative. — Do learn. 

III. Interrogative Form. 

147, The interrogative form is that which is used in ask- 
ing a question : as, " Can he see ?" " Shall he be punished ?" 

This form is used in the indicative and potential moods. 

I. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by (1) placing the subject 
after the verb : as, " Hearest thou .*" or (2) by placing the subject 
between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, "May we go?" or (3) by 
placing the subject after the first auxiliary when two or more 
auxiliaries are used : as, " Could he have called I" 

II. In common usage, the present and the past of the indicative 
mood are rendered interrogative by the use of do and did, with 
the subject following : as, " Do you hear ?" " Did you hear ?" 



TO SEE. 
IS THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

Active Voice. 

Indicative Mood. — See I, or do I see? Saw I, or did I see? Shall or 

will I see ? Have I seen ? Had I seen ? Shall or will I have seen ? 

Potential. — May I see? Might I see? May I have seen? Might I 

have seen ? 

Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mood. — Am I seen? Was I seen? Shall I be seen? Have 
I been seen ? Had I been seen ? Shall or will I have been seen ? 

Potential. — May I be seen? Might I be seen? May I have been seen? 
Might I have been seen ? 



THE VERB.— MODE OF NEGATION. 79 

148. Mode of Negation. — A verb is conjugated negatively 
by placing the adverb not immediately after it, or after the 
first auxiliary: as, "They come not;" or "They do not 
come ;" " He cannot return ;" " They will not he governed." 

I. The negative not, however, precedes the participles and the in- 
finitives : as, not oeing loved ; not to see ; (gerund) not seeing. 

II. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively by placing 
the subject followed by not immediately after the verb, or after 
the first auxiliary : as, " Conies he notV or, " Does he not come?" 
"Might he not improve?" The negative-interrogative form is 
used only in the indicative and potential moods. 

Obs. — There is another mode of placing the negative: thus, "Do not I 
move ?" contracted into " Don't I move ?" The following distinction exists : 
if the negative is before " I," the phrase is conversational or familiar : as, " Do 
not I move?" or "Don't I move?" if the negative is after "I," the phrase is 
energetic or emphatic : as, "Do I not move ?" 

III. The progressive form also may be conjugated negatively and 
interrogatively : as, " I am not writing ;" " Might they not have 
been sleeping?" etc. 

VERBS — DEFECTIVE, UNIPERSONAL, AND REDUNDANT. 

149. A defective verb is one that lacks one or more of its 
principal parts. The defective verbs are — 

1. Can, may, shall, will (with their variations), and must, already 
treated as auxiliaries. 

2. Ought, oeware. 

Obs.— Ought is the proper past tense of owe; but "I ought," "he ought," 
etc., have come to he used independently (and like must, without distinctions 
of person, number, or tense), with the meaning, "It is my duty" (what is due 
by me) ; " It is his duty," etc. The regular past of owe is owed. 

150. A unipersonal verb is a verb used in but one per- 
son, namely, the third person singular.* 

Of unipersonal verbs there are two kinds: 

* Sometimes these are called impersonal, as though they had no person ; 
but unipersonal is a more appropriate term. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Those asserting natural phenomena : as, " It rains ;" " It will 
rain;" "It snows." 

2. The forms "methinks," " methought." "Methinks" is com- 
posed of " me " (i. e., to me), the indirect object, and " thinks," 
meaning seems. The subject of the verb "thinks" is the clause 
following: as, "Methinks [that] I hear a voice"= u Th&t I hear 
a voice seems to me," or "It seems to me that I hear a voice." 

Obs. — "Thinks" is from the Anglo-Saxon verb thincan, to seem, or ap- 
pear, not from our common verb to think. 

151, A redundant verb is one that presents double forms 
of the past tense or past participle, or both: as, sang, 
sung ; got, gotten. 

IRREGULAR VEEBS. 

152. In the Appendix (page 244) will be found a list of 
about two hundred irregular verbs — comprising all that be- 
long to this class, except a few compounds. 

Verbs belonging, in the strict sense, to the irregular (old, or strong) 
conjugation may be subdivided into the following classes : 

Class 1. — Root-vowel modified for past, and en or n added for participle: 
as — 

Root; Past. Participle. 

break broke broken 

give gave given 

draw drew drawn 

Class 2.— Root- vowel modified for past, and no suffix in participle: as— 

Boot. Past. Participle. 

begin began begun 

find found found 

stand stood stood 

Class 3.— Regular in past; irregular in participle: as— 

Root. Past. Participle. 

lade laded laden 

show 6howed shown 



THE VERB.— REVIEW. 



81 



Classes. 



Conjugation 



Inflections. 



GENERAL REVIEW OP THE VERB. 
A, 

TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. 

Transitive. 
Intransitive. 



Gram. Forms. . . < 



Voice. 



Mood . 



Active. 
Passive. 

f Indicative. 
J Potential. 
1 Subjunctive. 

[ Imperative. 

f Present — Present perfect. 

Tense *.. <J Past — Past perfect. 

L Future — Future perfect. 

f First. 

Person <{ Second. 

[Third. 



Number........ j pfi ar * 



' Infinitive. 



Verbals . 



Infinitive. 



Gerund., 



t Present. 
( Perfect. 

( Present. 
( Perfect. 



. Participle. 



Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 



Regular. 
Irregular. 

-s (or -es) present indicative, third singular. 

-st (or -est)... present indicative, second singular. 

j -ed ..past indicative and subj. and past part. 

[ -ing present participle and gerund. 



B. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 
I. Definition of Verb, 

1. Predication. 

2. Subject. 

3. Distinguishing marks of the verb. 

D 2 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. Classes of Verbs. 

1. Transitive defined. 

a. Complement. 

b. Object. 

2. Intransitive defined. 

Characteristics. 

3. Verbs of double use. 

4. Auxiliaries. 

III. Verbals. 

1. Infinitives. 

a. Infinitive defined. 

b. Simple infinitive. 

c. Gerund. 

2. Participles. 

a. Present — how formed. 

b. Past — how formed. 

c. Boot. 

IV. Grammatical Forms of the Verb. 

1. Voice defined. 

a. Active defined. 

b. Passive defined. 

2. Mood defined. 

Number of moods. 

3. Tense defined. 

a. Primary tenses. 

b. Secondary tenses. 

c. Tenses of the indicative. 

d. Tenses of the potential. 

e. Tenses of the subjunctive. 
/. Tenses of the imperative* 

4. Compound infinitives and partictples 

a. Simple infinitive. 

b. Compound infinitive. 

c. Simple gerund. 

d. Compound gerund. 

e. Participle present. 
/. Participle past. 

g. Participle perfect. 



THE VERB.— REVIEW. 33 



5. Number and person. 

a. Number — singular, pluTal. 

b. Persons — number of. 
e. How denoted. 

d. Inflections. 

V. Conjugation. 

1. Number op conjugations. 

a. Regular defined. 

b. Irregular defined. 

2. Defective verb defined, 

3. Unipersonal verb defined. 

4. Redundant verb defined. 

5. Numbers of irregular verbs. 



WRITTEN REVIEWS. 
I. 

1. Write a sentence, and draw one line under the subject and two 
lines under the verb. 

2. Define transitive verb. 

3. Write a sentence containing a transitive verb, a subject, and an 
object. 

4. Define intransitive verb. 

5. Write a sentence containing an intransitive verb. 

6. What kind of verbs can by themselves make complete state- 
ments ? 

7. What is meant by an intransitive verb of incomplete predica- 
tion ? Illustrate by a sentence. 

8. Define verbals, state their two divisions, and give examples. 

9. Change the following verbs from the active to the passive voice, 
preserving the full sense : 

1. Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. 

2. Paul Revere carried to Lexington the news of the intended attack by 

the British. 

3. The first fresh dawn awoke us. 

4. The people of Lynn manufacture great quantities of shoes. 

5. No one has yet reached the North Pole, 



84 ETYMOLOGY, 

II. 

1. Enumerate the four inflected forms of the English verb, and state 
their use. 

2. Are there in English any inflected forms for the passive voice ? 

3. Does "mood" denote manner of action or manner of predication? 

4. Enumerate the principal auxiliaries of the potential mood. 

5. What is the original meaning of " shall ?" 

6. What part of the verb is "take" in the verb -phrase "I shall 
taker 

7. What is the original meaning of the inflection ed of the past 
tense ? 

8. What differences of form are there between a verb in the indica- 
tive mood and a. verb in the subjunctive mood ? 

III. 

1. Enumerate the principal auxiliary verbs, and state their use. 

2. What are the four forms in ing f Give an example of each. 

3. What are the only personal inflections of the English verb ? 

4. Explain the term " redundant verb." 

5. From how many sources are the parts of the verb to oe derived ? 

6. Write a synopsis of the verb to walk in the third person, singular, 
indicative mood, negative-interrogative form. 

7. What is the meaning of the second a do" in " How do you do V 

8. What rules of spelling apply in forming the following derivatives : 
deceive-\-ed-\-ing f verify -\-ed-\-ing? oley-\-ed-\-ing f die+ed-\-ing ? 

9. Give a written statement of the grammatical forms of the verb:- 
in the following passage from Milton's " Paradise Lost :" 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top 
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed 
In the beginning how the heavens and earth 
Rose out of Chaos. 



THE ADVERB.— DEFINITION. 85 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ADVERB. 

Definition — Classification — Inflection. 

153, An adverb* is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb : thus — 

( Verb ) The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
{Adjective) Ye quenchless stars ! so eloquently bright. 
(Adverb) One who loved not wisely, but too well. 

The office of the adverb is to modify the meaning of a word de- 
noting an action or an attribute, by connecting with that word 
some condition or circumstance — as of time, place, manner, etc. 

The verb expresses action, and adjectives and adverbs express at- 
tributes : hence the adverb qualifies three parts of speech — 

1. The verb, expressing action. 

2. The adjective, denoting an attribute. 

3. The adverb, denoting an attribute of another attribute. 

154. Classification, — As regards their use in a sentence, 
adverbs are of four kinds : I. Simple. II. Conjunctive. 
III. Inteerogative. IV. Modal. 

Under the adverb may also be considered the kind of words 
termed responsives. (See § 161.) 

155. A simple adverb is one that merely modifies the 
word with which it is used : as, " We arrived yesterday ;" 
" You are always ready." 

156, A conjunctive (or relative) adverb is one that not 

* Adverbium, from ad (to) and verbnm (verb), the name u adverb" implying 
a word attached to a verb. 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

only modifies the word with which it is used, but connects 
the clause in which it occurs with the rest of the sentence : 
thus — 

1. Come where my love lies dreaming. 

2. We know not whence it cometh or whither it goeth. 

The office rilled by a conjunctive adverb in a sentence is analogous 
to the function of the relative pronoun ; and as the relative pro- 
noun refers to an antecedent, so the conjunctive adverb refers to 
some preceding term of the nature of a demonstrative, expressed 
or understood. Thus — 

1. There where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 

2. Come [then] when you are ready. 

157. The following words are conjunctive adverbs: 

when whence wherehy whereat whenever 

where why wherefore while as* 

whether wherein whereon whereafter than 

158. An interrogative adverb is one by which a question 
is asked : as — 

1. Mother, oh! where is that radiant shore? 

2. When shall we three meet again? 

159. A modal adverb is one that denotes in what man- 
ner a thought is conceived by the speaker : as — 

(Affirmatively) Thou shalt surely die. 

(Negatively) It is not all of life to live. 

(Contingently) Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid some heart. 

Modal adverbs differ from all other adverbs in that they modify 
the whole sentence rather than some particular word or phrase 
in it. This fact may be taken into account as a partial qualifr 
cation of the definition of the adverb. 

160. Classes by Meaning.— With reference to their meamr 
ing, adverbs may be divided into the following classes: 

* When correlative with so. such, or as. 



THE ADVERB.— CLASSIFICATION. 87 

1. Adverbs of place — answering the questions where? whither? 
whence? as, here, there, nowhere, backwards. 

2. Adverbs of time — answering the questions when? how long? 
how often? as, then, formerly, seldom, thrice. 

3. Adverbs of manner — answering the question how ? as, truly, 
faithfully, well, otherwise. 

4. Adverbs of degree — answering the question how much? as, 
scarcely, little, enough. 

5. Adverbs of cause — answering the question why ? as, therefore, 
wherefore, why. 

161, Kesponsives. — The words yes and no — which are 
3quivalent, the former to a responsive sentence affirmative, 
!;he latter to a responsive sentence negative — are sometimes 
sailed responsives: as, "Will you go?" "Yes" (=1 will. 
*o) ; "Xo" (=1 will not go). 

These words are derived from adverbs, but in their use they re- 
semble interjections. In truth, neither the responsives nor the 
interjections are parts of speech, but are entire sentences in el- 
liptical form : they are therefore non-grammatical words. 

Adverbial Phrases. — Certain combinations of words used ad- 
verbially are called adverbial phrases : as — 

at length ; at last ; at best ; at large ; at all ; at times ; at hand ; 
by and by ; by turns ; by chance ; by no means ; in that ; 
inasmuch as ; in truth ; in case ; from above ; from below ; one 
by one ; in like manner ; now and then ; ever and anon ; up 
and down ; in and out ; here and there ; as yet ; by far. 

162, Comparison, — Some adverbs admit of comparison. 
The comparative and superlative degrees are formed in the 
same manner as those of adjectives : as, soon, sooner, soonest; 
beautifully, more beautifully, most beautifully. 

The following adverbs, like the adjectives with which 
they correspond, are irregularly compared : well, ill, badly, 
much, nigh or near, late, little, far, forth. 



88 



ETYMOLOGY. 



NOTES ON THE ADVERB. 

I. Pronominals. — Many of the most used adverbs have a pronominal 
origin, as shown in the following table : 



ROOT. 


MKAN- 
ING. 


PLACE. 


TIME. 


MANNER. 


CAUSE. 


i 


IN. 


TO. 


FROM. 


He- 


this 


he-re 


j hi-ther 
( he-re 


hen-ce 


(now) 


(SO) 




The- 


that 


the-re 


j thi-ther 
( the-re 


then-ce 


then 


thus 
the 


there- 
fore 


Whe- 


what 


whe-re 


j whi-ther 
( whe-re 


when-ce 


when 


how 


why 



II. Adverbial " The." — " The " in such expressions as " the sooner 
the better" is not the definite article the, but a case of the Anglo-Saxon 
demonstrative that. The older form was thy (compare why), and the 
meaning is, " by what (in what degree) sooner, by that (in that degree)* 
better." "The sooner" and "the better" should be parsed as adverb- 
ial phrases. So with similar forms : as, " the more the merrier," etc. 



EXERCISE 7 

Select and classify the adverbs : 

1. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world. 2. Night has already gone. 
3. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 4. She weeps not, but often 
and deeply she sighs. 5. Again thy fires began to burn. 6. I was daily with 
you. 7. Thought, once tangled, never cleared again. 8. Dulness is ever apt 
to magnify. 9. Where is my child? and echo answers, "Where?" 10. Here 
rests his head upon the lap of earth. 11. Look downward on yonder globe. 
12. Come hither, my little page. 13. Onward in haste Llewellyn passed. 14. Let 
Norval go hence as he came. 15. I thence invoke thy aid. 16. Whence and 
what art thou? 17. Henceforth, to rule was not enough for Bonaparte. 
18. This institution universally prevailed. 19. Isaac trembled exceedingly. 
20. Think much, speak little. 21. We cannot wholly deprive them of merit. 
22. The same actions may arise from quite contrary principles. 23. It was 
thought very strange. 24. They were completely in my power. 



TEE PREPOSITION.— DEFINITION. 89 

CHAPTER VII. 
THE PREPOSITION. 

163. Definition. — A preposition* is a connective word ex- 
>ressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun 
.nd some other word : as, " The book lies before me on the 
leak." 

I. The noun or pronoun depending on the preposition is said to 
be governed by it, and is in the objective case. 

II. A preposition connects icords, but it shows the relation between 
some thing and (1) some other thing, or (2) some action, or (3) 
some attribute. Thus, in the sentence, " I saw a man in a boat," 
" in" is a preposition, and marks the relation (of place) in which 
the man stands to the ooat. 

In the sentence, u The boat went down the stream," " down" is a 
preposition, and marks the relation (of direction) which the 
action of going bears to the stream. 

In the sentence, " Honey is sweet to the taste," " to " denotes the 
relation (of nearness) of taste to the attribute sweet. 

III. The equivalents of the noun (before which a preposition can 
be placed) are — 

(1) An infinitive : " None knew thee but to love thee." 

(2) An infinitive in ing (gerund) : " His conduct est rescuing the 
child was greatly praised." 

(3) A clause : " This will depend on who the commissioners are." 

164. The connection made by a preposition is between a 
noun (or pronoun) and a noun,- a verb, or an adjective. 

1. Another noun (or pronoun): "There is a book on the table" 
u Give it to me." 

* The word preposition {prce, before, and ponere, to place) literally means 
placed before something ; and they were so named because they were originally 
prefixed to the verb to modify its meaning. Now, however, they are usually 
placed before nouns or pronouns. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. A verb: "James has returned from school." 

3. An adjective : " He is fond of bis book" 

165. The object of a preposition is the noun or the pro- 
noun depending on (or governed by) it. Thus — 

She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, 

And lovers around her are sighing ; 
But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, 

For her heart in his grave is lying. 

I. In the common arrangement of words the preposition comes be 
fore its object. But inversions of this order are frequent, both 
in poetry— as, " Where echo walks the steep hills among " — and 
in prose — as, " The pen that I am writing with" = with which I 
am writing. 

II. By governing the objective case is meant making it necessary 
that the noun or pronoun shall assume that case ; just as transitive 
verbs control nouns and pronouns in the objective case. Owing 
to the absence of an objective case-form in the noun, this gov- 
erning or controlling power of the preposition is not manifest in 
words belonging to that part of speech ; but it is seen in such 
pronouns as possess a distinct case-form : thus, " from him" " to 
me" " by us" " among them." 



about 

above 

across 

after 

against 

along 

amid ) 

amidst ) 

among ) 

amongst > 

around 

at 

athwart 

before 



of the Principal Prepositions. 


. 


behind 


in 


to 


below 


into 


toward > 
towards > 


beneath 


of 


beside > 
besides > 


off 


under 


on 


underneath 


between 


over 


until 


betwixt 


pending 


unto 


beyond 


regarding 


up 


but 


respecting 


upon 


by 


round 


with 


down 


since 


within 


excepting 


through 


without 


for 


throughout 




from 


till 





THE PREPOSITION.— NOTES. 9J 



NOTES ON THE PREPOSITION. 

I. Analysis. — In the list of prepositions above given, the following 
ire simple prepositions : 



at 


from 


off 


till 


up 


by 


in 


on 


to 


with 


for 


of 


through 







Most of the other prepositions may, with regard to their origin, be 
classed as follows : 

1. Prepositions formed by prefixing the preposition a=on, or be=.h/, 
to a noun or an adjective used substantively : viz. — 

a-cross* a-mong, or a-mongst be-low 

a-gainst a-round be-side, or be-sides 

a-mid, or a-midstt a-thwart be-tween, or be-twixt§ 

Along is made up of arcfcopposite, and long ; since is derived 
from Anglo-Saxon s#A=late ; inside =in-f- side ; ontside=out+side. 

2. Prepositions formed by prefixing a preposition to an adverb: 
viz. — 

a-bont^za (0rc)+be (fo/)+out. 

a-bove=:a (071) +be (fa/)+ove (up). 

be-fore— be (by)-\-fore. 

be-hindmbe (by)+him\. 

be-neath=be (02/)+neath (under). 

be-yond=be (by) +yond (yonder, or there). 

but— be (fa/)+utan, by out, i. e., on the outside of, and hence except. 

throughont=through+out. 

underneath =under+ neath. 

3. Prepositions derived from adverbs by a comparative suffix : viz. — 
af-ter, a comparative of the root 0/=of=from : that is, more from (a 

certain time, etc.). 

ov-er, a comparative of the root of or uf: that is, more up. 



* From French croix, a cross. 

t Anglo-Saxon, on micPdum: on + adjective mid in middle. 

§ Between comes from tweon, twain, a derivative of twa, two. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

im-der, which contains the root in-\-der (=ther), a comparative 
suffix. 

II. Prepositional Forms. — Several words commonly classed as 
prepositions belong properly to parts of speech whose functions are 
better defined. Among these are : 

1. Except and save, imperatives of the verbs to except, to save=to 
leave out.* 



''concerning 
considering 
barring 
regarding 
respecting 

^touching 



are present participles used absolutely, and take 
objects after them. 



3. During (present participle of dure, to endure, or last) accompanies 
a noun in the nominative absolute: as, "during the mght"=the night 
during or lasting. Notwithstanding, accompanying a noun, is in the 
same construction. 

EXERCISE 8. 

Select the prepositions : 

1. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. 2. We rise 
at seven o'clock in the winter, and in summer at six. 3. James VI., of Scot- 
land, was the great-grand-nephew of Henry VII. of England, the first of the 
Tudor line. 4. There are many proofs of the roundness of the earth. 5. The 
head of the gang listened in silence to the remonstrances of his subordinates. 
6. His head had not been five seconds under water, when he rose to the sur- 
face and swam towards the bank. 7. He of the rueful countenance answered 
without delay. 8. As we walked across the bridge we saw a number of fish 
in the pool beneath us. 9. With patience you may succeed. 10. I have not 
seen him since Monday, but I expect him within an hour. 11. A brilliant 
meteor shot athwart the sky, and was lost behind the hill. 12. The poor bird 
took refuge in a hole in the oak, and died of fright. 13. Indian corn, when ripe 
in October, is gathered in the field by men who go from hill to hill with bas- 
kets into which they put the corn. 14. The creaking of the masts was fright- 
ful. 15. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 16. It 
happened one day, when going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised 
with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore. 

* Or except and save may be remnants of Latin ablatives absolute, in which 
excepto and salvo were used. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 93 

CHAPTER VIII. 
THE CONJUNCTION. 

166. A conjunction* is a word used to connect sentences 
or the elements of a sentence. 

The elements of a sentence are (1) words, (2) phrases^ and (3) prop- 

ositions.\ 

1. Hamilton and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen. 

The conjunction "and" unites the words "Hamilton" and "Jeffer- 
son" as component parts of the subject of the verb "were." 

2. The sound of falling waters or of the rustling leaves is agreeable 

to the ear. 

The conjunction "or" connects the two phrases "of falling waters," 
"of the rustling leaves," as modifiers of the noun "sound." 

3. [James will come] if [you call]. 

The conjunction "if" joins the two propositions "James will come" 
and "you call." The first is the principal proposition, the second, 
" [if] you call," the subordinate proposition (or clause). 

167. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into 
two classes : I. Co-ordinate conjunctions. II. Subordinate 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

168. A co-ordinate conjunction is one that connects (1) 
words and phrases which have the same grammatical rela- 
tion to some other word in the sentence ; (2) propositions 
each of which is of the same rank — that is, both indepen- 
dent or both dependent. 

* From Lathi con, together, and jungere, to join. 
+ See § 21s. 
X See § 219. 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. The winds and the waves are absent there. 

Here " winds 7 ' and " waves" have the same relation— that of subject- 
to u are." The conjunction "and" which connects them in con- 
struction is, therefore, a co-ordinate conjunction. 

2. The boy is always running down to the river or into the woods. 

The phrases "to the river" and "into the woods" have the same 
relation to the verb "is running" (being adverbial phrases modi- 
fying that verb). "Or" is, therefore, a co-ordinate conjunction. 

3. [He chid their wanderings] but [relieved their pain]. 

Both of the propositions connected by "but" are of the same rank 
—each being an independent statement. "But" is, therefore, a 
co-ordinate conjunction. 

169. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are: 

and neither either whether 

but nor or both 

170. Correlatives. — Some conjunctions that are used in 
pairs are called correlatives ; that is, conjunctions having a 
mutual relation. 

Both — and It is both yours and mine. 

Either — or He is either a knave or a fool. 

Neither — nor Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. 

Whether — or It matters little whether I go or stay. 

171. A subordinate conjunction is one used to connect a 
dependent with a principal proposition. 

Subordinate conjunctions never couple words only. 
If we cannot remove pain, we may alleviate it. 
I fled because I was afraid. 

172. The principal subordinate conjunctions are: 

that though for 

if although till 

lest after until 

unless before because 

notwithstanding since except 



THE INTERJECTION. 95 



EXERCISE 9. 

Select and classify the conjunctions: 

1. Take heed lest ye fall. 

2. I have cut my finger, therefore I cannot write. 

3. I fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 

4. I shall OLke the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 

5. He speaks so low that he cannot be heard. 

6. Remain where you are till I return. 

7. He will neither come nor send an apology. 

8. It is as cold as Iceland. 

9. I know not whether to. go or to remain. 

10. Ask James if he is ready ; and if he is ready, tell him to follow as quick- 

ly as he can. 

11. He did not deserve to succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no 

interest. 

12. I shall not go unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 

13. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle; but of all 

others a scholar. 

14. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- 

volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may 
clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth 
century ; and that before the end of the same the use of artillery 

► in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of 
Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. 
Whether he was combined 
With those of Norway; or did line the rebel 
With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both 
He labor' d in his country's wrack, I know not. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

173. Definition. — An interjection is a word which ex- 
presses an emotion, but which does not enter into the con- 
struction of the sentence: as, Oh I Ah ! Alas ! Hurrah ! 

Note. —What is further to be said respecting the interjection will be 
found under Syntax. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE ADVERB, PREPOSITION, AND CONJUNCTION. 

A. 

TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. 
i. the: adverb, 



Simple. 
Conjun< 
Interrc 
Modal. 



Classes. . \ ? 0NJraCTI A I™ „ Gram. Forms Comparison onlv. 

Interrogative. 



2. THE PREPOSITION. 

Classes None. Gram. Forms None. 

3. THE CONJUNCTION, 

Co-ordinate. Gram. Forms None. 

Subordinate. 



i 



B. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 
I. Adverb Defined. 

II. Classes of Adverbs. 

1. Simple adverb defined. 

2. Conjunctive adverb defined. 

3. Interrogative adverb defined. 

4. Modal adverb defined. 

III. Grammatical Form. 

Comparison — how formed. 

IV. Preposition Defined. 

Nature of the relation denoted. 

V. Government by Prepositions. 

Object defined. 

VI. Conjunction Defined. 

Elements connected. 
VII. Classes of Conjunctions. 

1. Co-ordinate defined. 

2. Subordinate defined. 

3. Correlative defined. 



GENERAL REVIEW OF ADVERB, PREPOSITION, ETC. 97 

c. 

WKITTEN REVIEWS. 

I. 

1. What is the derivation of the word adverb ? 

2. What are the classes of adverbs with respect to grammatical use ? 

3. Write a sentence containing a conjunctive adverb. 

4. Write examples of adverbs of time, place, and negation. 

5. Explain " the " in " the more the merrier." 

6. How are adverbs compared ? 

7. Give the origin of five adverbs derived from a pronominal root. 

H. 

1. Draw out in tabular form the prepositions and conjunctions: 

It is enacted in the laws of Venice, — 
If it be proved against an alien, 
That by direct or indirect attempts 
He seek the life of any citizen, 
The party 'gainst the which he doth contrive 
Shall seize one half his goods ; the other half 
Comes to the privy coffer of the state ; 
And the offender's life lies in the mercy 
Of the duke only, 'gainst all other voice. 
In which predicament I say thou stand' st: 
For it appears, by manifest proceeding, 
That indirectly — and directly too — 
Thou hast contrived against the very life 
Of the defendant ; and thou hast incurred 
The danger formerly by me rehearsed. 
Down, therefore, and beg mercy of the duke. 

2. Write sentences illustrating the use of all the simple prepositions. 

III. 

1. Give the etymology of the word conjunction. 

2. What is a co-ordinate conjunction? Illustrate by examples. 

3. What is a subordinate conjunction ? Illustrate by examples. 

4. Write a sentence containing a pair of correlative conjunctions. 

5. Write out in tabular form all the conjunctions in the passage 

from the Merchant of Venice, given above. 

6. Write a sentence containing two interjections. 

E 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER IX. 

USES AND PARSING OF THE PARTS OP 

SPEECH. 

I. The ISToun. 

174, A noun is parsed etymologically by stating : 

I. Its class — proper, common, or abstract. 

II. Its grammatical forms — number, gender, and case. 

The person of 1 a noun need not be given unless of the first or 
second person. 

III. Its use. 



Teacher's Note. — The introduction, into the treatment of etymology, of 
the uses of a given part of speech — a subject which may seem to belong rather 
to syntax — needs a word of explanation. The English language, as we have 
seen, is to a very limited degree an inflected tongue: it is often impossible to 
determine the grammatical form of a noun (and consequently to perform even 
the etymological parsing thereof) without reference to the function of the 
noun in the sentence. Thus there is no visible distinction between a noun in 
the nominative case and one in the objective case or in the absolute construc- 
tion ; no difference between a noun in the objective case and one in what is, in 
fact, the dative case, or in the adverbial construction. Accordingly, to require 
pupils to assign grammatical properties to a word destitute of any sign of such 
properties, while at the same time leaving them ignorant as to the functional 
tests of grammatical form, appears to be a somewhat irrational procedure, and 
one that sufficiently accounts for the vague and unsatisfactory notions that 
pupils generally acquire respecting the important and deeply interesting study 
of English etymology. 

It is for this reason that in the present text-book the etymological treat- 
ment of a given part of speech is supplemented by a detailed exhibit of the 
functions of said part of speech. This is not syntax any more than it is ety- 
mology — it is rather a border-land between the two. In the exercises in etymo- 
logical parsing the enumeration of the properties of a word is followed by the 
statement of the particular use of the word — not in the shape of a syntactical 
rule, but merely by way of accounting for the word's otherwise indeterminable 
grammatical form. 



THE NOUN.— ITS USES. 99 

175. There are nine uses or functions of the noun in a 
entence. 

I, Subject. — A noun may be in the nominative case as 
he subject of a verb' 

lodel for Parsing. 

The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke. 

note is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, 

and nominative case — the subject of the verb " broke." 
roar (same parsing). 

EXERCISE 10. 

Parse etymologicaliy the noun-subjects in the following 
sentences : 

1. Water consists of two gases. 

2. Napoleon went to Egypt with forty sail-of- the-line. 

3. Life's but a walking shadow. 

4. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. 
5.. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. 

6. The boy stood on the burning deck, 
WTience all but him had fled. 

7. Kindness to animals is a duty of all. 



II, Possessive. — A noun may be used attributively* in 
the possessive case. It is then said to limit or modify the 
noun with which it is joined in meaning. 

Model for Parsing. 

The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke. 

bugle's is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, 

and possessive case — limiting the noun " note." 

cannon's... is a common noun, of the singular number,t neuter gen- 
der, and possessive case — limiting the noun " roar." 

* See p. 137. 

t It may, however, be construed as in the plural, being an indeterminate 
form. 

LofC. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISE 11. 

Parse etymologically the nouns possessive in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. The spider's web is a wonderful piece of work. 

2. Some judge of authors' names, not works. 

3. See laurels on the bald first Coesar's head. 

4. This is my fathers' ancient burial-place. 

5. So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way. 
To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's bay. 

6. Progress, Liberty's proud teacher; 
Progress, Labor's sure reward. 



I 



III. Object, — A noun may be in the objective case as 
the object of a transitive verb. 

Model for Parsing 1 . 

The buglers note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke, 
silence... is an abstract noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, 
and objective case — the object of the verb " broke."* 



EXERCISE 12. 

Parse etymologically the xioxm-objects in the following 
sentences : 

1. I met a little cottage girl. 

2. The Muses haunt clear spring or shady grove or sunny hill. 

3. The reindeer draws the Laplander's sledge. 

4. The Laplander defies the severity of his native climate. 

5. When he read the note, he shook his head, and observed that an affair of 

this sort demanded the utmost circumspection. 

6. We carved not a line, we raised not a stone. 

7. Enough, enough; sit down and share 
A soldier's couch, a soldier's fare. 

8. Who would bear the whips and scornsf of time, 

The oppressor's wrong, t the proud man's contumely ?t 

* The object u silence" is here in the inverted or poetic order; the usual 
place of an object is after the governing verb. 

t Supply " bear." The governing verb is often understood. 



THE NOUN.— ITS USES. 101 

IV. Phrase-use. — A noun may he joined to another word 
y means of a preposition. It is then parsed as in the ob- 
ective case, depending on the preposition. 

The noun and its so-called ''governing' 7 preposition form a 
prepositional phrase. 

lodel for Parsing. 

The army crossed the river by a bridge made of pontoon-boats. 

bridge is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter 

gender, and objective case — depending on the prepo- 
sition " by." 

pontoon-boats... is a common noun, of the plural number, neuter gen- 
der, and objective case — depending on the preposi- 
tion " of." 

EXERCISE 13. 

Parse etyniologically the nonns in the objective case gov- 
/ 7 by prepositions : 

1. The Gauls were conquered by Caesar. 

2. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 

3. The end of government is the good of mankind. 

4. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 

5. From peak to peak the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live tnunder. 

6. Out flew 

Millions of flaming swords drawn from the thighs 
Of mighty cherubim. 

V, Indirect object, — A noun may be used in the objective 
case as the indirect object of a verb. The indirect object 
may readily be recognized by these tests : it comes before a 
direct object, and answers the question, " For or to whom V' 
"For or to what T* 

* In the earliest English there was a special inflection to denote the indi- 
rect object. This was called the dative case, which means literally the giving 
case, because this inflected form was used cliiefly after such verbs as give, lend, 
send, and the like. Thus — 

[Early English)— This king gave large gifts ministr-?r/?i. 

{Modern English)— -This king gave [to] the ministers large gifts.— Abbott's 
Sfiakespearean Grammar. 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

Model for Parsing, 

1. We gave the man a book. 

2. Socrates taught Plato philosophy. 

man ...is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine gender, 
and objective case — indirect object of the verb "gave." 

Plato... is a proper noun, singular number, masculine gender, and ob- 
jective case — indirect object of the verb " taught." 



EXERCISE 14. 

Parse etymologically the nouns used as indirect objects : 

1. This king gave the ministers large gifts. 

2. The judge granted the prisoner a full pardon. 

3. Ascham taught Lady Jane Grey the Greek language. 

4. Lend the poor man a dollar. 

5. We sent the teacher a request. 



VI, Appositive. — A noun may be used to explain another 
noun. It is then said to be an appositwe, or to be in appo- 
sition* with the noun which it explains, and is in the same 
case (nominative, possessive, or objective) as that noun. 

Model for Parsing, 

1. Ali reclined, a man of war and woes. 

man is a common noun, of the singular number and masculine 

gender ; it is in the nominative case, because "Ali," with which 
it is in apposition, is the subject of the verb " reclined." 

2. We beheld the Mississippi, that mighty river. 

river ....is a common noun, of the singular number and neuter gender ; 
it is in the objective case, being in apposition with "Missis- 
sippi," the object of the verb " beheld." 

* From ad, near or alongside of, and ponere, to place or put. There may be 
intervening words, but no connecting words ; and both words must be in the 
same member of the sentence. 



THE NOUN.— ITS USES. 103 

EXERCISE 15. 

Parse etymologically the nouns in apposition in the fol- 
owing sentences : 

1. Next came Thomas, the boy that cleans the boots. 

2. Then we saw Thomas, the boy that cleans the boots. 

3. Washington, the father of his country, was the first president of the 

United States. 

4. Whang the miller was very avaricions. 

5. We admire Milton, the great English poet. 



VII. Predicate Nominative.— A noun may come after, 
>r complete the meaning of, certain intransitive or passive 
rerbs, and yet denote the same person or thing as the sub- 
ject of the verb. It is then called the predicate nominative. 

Thus, in the sentence, " The author of this book is my brother," 
" brother" is in the predicate, but it is not the object of the verb, 
for the verb "is" asserts the identity of " author" and "broth- 
er;" so that, as " author" is in the nominative case, " brother" 
must be in the same case. We may say, " The author of this 
book is /" (nom. case), not " is me" (obj. case). 

Hodel for Parsing. 

1. Tennyson is a poet. 

poet is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine 

• gender, and nominative case — predicate nominative after 

the verb "is." 

2. Washington was elected president in 1789. 

president... is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine gen- 
der, and nominative case — predicate nominative after 
" was elected." 



EXERCISE 16. 

Parse etymologically the nouns that are predicate nomi- 



natives in the following sentences : 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. And, Saxon, I am Roderick Dhu. 

2. The earth is a planet. 

3. Mary still seemed a queen (=was a queen in seeming, or appearance). 

4. King William of Prussia became Emperor of Germany in 1871. 

5. He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like 

again. 



VIII. Independent and Absolute.— A noun may be in 
the nominative case independent or absolute: thus — 

1. Horatius, saith the consul, as thou sayest, so let it be. 

2. The storm having ceased, we departed. 

I. Nominative Independent. — In example l,the noun "Horatius" 
has no grammatical dependence on any other word in the sen- 
tence. Hence it is said' to be independent, and it is parsed as 
in the nominative case. 

II. Nominative Absolute. — In example 2, the noun "storm" has 
no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. The 
sentence is not " The storm ceased, and we departed," or " When 
the storm ceased, we departed," but " The storm having ceased, we 
departed." The words " the storm having ceased" form & phrase. 
(See § 218.) When a noun is found in this construction, it is 
parsed as in the" nominative absolute* 

Model for Parsing. 

1. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 

Mary... is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, femi- 
nine gender, and nominative case independent. « 

2. The river not being fordable, we had to make a great dgtour. 
river... is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and 

nominative case absolute. 
Note. — See examples for parsing under Exercise 17, page 107. 

* The author has deemed it more in accordance with the history of our lan- 
guage to separate the construction here called the nominative absolute from 
that called the nomiuative independent than to call the former the "nomina- 
tive independent 1 ' and the latter the "nominative independent by address." 
The nominative absolute corresponds to the Latin "ablative absolute" (in Anglo- 
Saxon the noun in this construction was in the dative case), while what is here 
termed the nominative independent corresponds to the Latin vocative. 



THE NOUN.— ITS USES. 105 

IX. Objective Adverbial.— A noun may be used in the 
objective case when it is employed in the manner of an ad- 
)erb to modify a verb or an adjective, by expressing meas- 
lre of time, distance, value, etc. : as — 

1. We walked a mile. 

2. You are a foot taller than I. 

3. The battle lasted three days. 

In this use the noun is called the objective adverbial* 

ttodel for Parsing. 

That pole is ten feet high, 
feet... is a common noun, of the plural number, neuter gender, and 

objective case— objective adverbial modifying the adjective 

" high'' (=high by ten feet). 
Note.— See examples for parsing under Exercise 17, page 107. 



EXERCISE 17. 
A. 

Parse the italicized nouns in the following sentences i 

[Under I.-V., pages 99-101.] 

1. All men are created equal. — Jefferson. 

12. Then rose from sea to sky the wild fa re well. — Byron. 
3. Vanish 1 d is the ancient splendor, and before my dreamy eye 

Wave these mingling shapes and figures, like a faded tapestry.— Longfellow. 

4. The steed along the drawbridge Hies.— Scott. 

5. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work, but at 

the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him sixpence. 
— Spectator. 

* Many grammarians parse nouns thus used as governed by a preposition 
mderstood (" We walked for a mile;" " You are taller by a foot," etc.). But 
.here is no preposition to be supplied, and there never was any. Nouns in this 
construction are disguised forms of early English genitives or datives — cases 
that were used to denote measure, time, etc. Thus, "three furlongs broad" 
was in Anglo-Saxon " thveova ficrlanga brad," where " furlanga " is in the geni- 
tive case. * So the expression "bound hand and foot" was in Anglo-Saxon 
"bound hand-?mi and fot-wm (=as regards or in hand and foot), the nouns 
being in the dative case. 

E2 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. Thou knowest my praise of nature most sincere, 
And that my raptures are not conjured up 

To serve occasions of poetic pomp, 

But genuine, and art partner of them all. — Cowper* 

7. Thy name and watchword o'er this land 

I hear in every breeze that stirs, 
And round a thousand altars stand 
Thy banded party worshippers. — Whittier. 

8. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a rock 

that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit of a 
shepherd, with a little musical instrument in his hand. — Addison, 

9. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
Of some great ammiral were but a wand, 
He walked with, to support uneasy steps 
Over the burning marie. — Milton. 

10. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. — Scott. 

11. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime, 
And, departing, leave behind us 
Footprints on the sands of time. — Longfellow. 

12. H\& father's sword he has girded on. — Moore. 

13. Leaves have their time to fall 

And flowers to wither at the North Wind's breath. — Hemans. 

14. Then future ages with delight shall see 

How Plato's, Bacon's, Newton's looks agree. — Pope. 

15. The only, the perpetual dirge 

That's heard there is the sea-bird's cry, 
The mournful murmur of the surge, 
The cloud's deep voice, the wind's low sigh. — Pierpont. 

16. The patriarch made Joseph a coat of many colors. 

17. Lend your neighbors a helping hand. 

18. We forgive our friends their faults. 

19. Then give humility a coach -and -six, 
Justice a conqueror's sword, or truth a gown, 
Or public spirit its great cure, a crown. — Pope. 

20. He chooses company, but not the squire's* — Addison. 

B. 

[Under VI.-IX., pages 102-105.] 

1. Thomson, the poet, was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. 

2. The emperor Kaoti, a soldier of fortune, marched against the Huns.— 1 

Gibbon. 

* That is, " the squire's company." The noun limited by a noun in the pos- 
sessive case is often omitted, but in parsing it must be supplied as understood. 



THE NOUN.— ITS USES. 107 

3. *Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. —Shakspeare. 

4. This is my son, mine own Telemachus, — Tennyson. 

5. There, swinging wide at her moorings, lay 
The Somerset, British man-of-war— 

A phantom ship.— Longfellow. 

6. Be a hero in the strife. — Longfellow. 

7. Discretion is the better part of valor. Shakspeare. 

8. There were two fathers in this ghastly crew. — Byron. 

9. Brevity is the soul of wit. — Shakspeare. 

10. The proper study of mankind is man.— Pope. 

11. The principle which gave a peculiar coloring to Isabella's mind y?q.s piety. 

— Prescott. 

12. And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. — Shelley. 

13. Others, their blue eyes with tears o'erflowing, 
Stand, like Ruth, amid the golden corn. — Longfellow. 

14. The hill-range stood 
Transfigured in the silver flood, 

Its blown snows flashing cold and keen. — Whittier. 

15. Success being hopeless, preparations were made for a retreat. — Alison. 

16. Uriel, no wonder if thy perfect sight, 

Amid the sun's bright circlet where thou sitt'st, 
See far and wide. — Milton. 

17. Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise ! — Pope. 

18. With that she fell distract, 

And, her attendants absent, swallowed fire. — Shakspeare. 

19. The war being ended, the soldiers returned to their homes, 

20. Listen, my children, and you shall hear 

Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. — Longfellow. 

21. O Caledonia ! stern and wild, 
Meet nurse for a poetic child. 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, 
Land of the mountain and the flood. — Scott. 

22. O lonely tomb in Moab's land, 

O dark Bethp'eor's hill. 
Speak to these curious hearts of ours 
And teach them to be still.— Anon. 

23. The antechambers were crowded all night with lords and councillors.— 

Macaulay. 

24. Home they brought her warrior dead. — Tennyson. 

25. Patrick Henry was nearly six feet high. — Wirt. 

26. Not without deep solicitude I saw the angry clouds gathering in the 

horizon, north and south. — Everett. 

27. He that was dead came forth bound hand and foot.— Bible. 

28. You came three times last week, but did you come the nearest wayf 

29. Awake, my St. John, leave all meaner things. — Pope. 

30. MUton^ thou shouldst be with us at this hour.— Wordsworth. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. The Pronoun. 

I. USES. 

176. Of the nine uses of the noun, the pronoun has all 
except that of the objective adverbial ; but one class of pro- 
nouns, the relatives, have an office distinct from the noun: 
namely, the office of a connective : 

I. Subject of a verb : thus — 

1. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. 

2. We looked on him as he lay wounded on the ground. 

3. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 

II. Possessive: thus — 

1. He knows his rights. 

2. Whose is this image and superscription ? 

III. Object of a verb : thus — 

1. Take her up tenderly. 

2. He taught you how you might conquer them. 

3. Whom do you mean ? What are you doing ? 

IV. Indirect object : thus — 

1. Tell him not to vex her. 

2. The master gave them one dollar each. 

V. Phrase use — object of a preposition : thus— 

1. To whom much is given, of them much is required. 

2. With malice toward none, with charity for alL 

VI. Predicate nominative : thus — 

1. It is J, be not afraid. 

2. Those lips are thine. 

3. Who say ye that I am ? 

VII. Appositive: thus — 
We all do fade as a flower. 

Note.— This construction is rare. 



THE PRONOUN.— ITS USES. 109 

VIII. Independent or absolute: thus — 

1. O Thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers. 

2. We being mounted, the cavalcade advanced. 

IX. Connective. — The relative pronouns serve to connect 
the dependent proposition, which they introduce, with some 
word or words in the principal statement of the sentence : 
thus — 

1. Longfellow is the poet who wrote " Evangeline." 

2. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 

3. Solomon was the wisest man that ever lived. 

In sentence 1 "Longfellow is the poet" is the principal statement; u who 
wrote 'Evangeline'" is a clause; the relative "who" connects the clause 
with the antecedent "poet." 

In like manner in sentence 2 "which" connects the clause that it intro- 
duces with the antecedent "dream;" and in 3 "that" connects the clause 
that it introduces with the antecedent "man." 

Relative "What." — The relative what is often parsed by separat- 
ing it into that which, and then disposing of each of these words 
according to its use in the sentence. But it is preferable to 
-parse what itself as subject of a verb or object of a verb (or 
preposition), and then treat as a whole the clause introduced 
by what* 



II. PARSING. 

177. Personal Pronouns, — In parsing a personal pronoun, 
state — 

1. Class. 

2. Person : first, second, or third. 

3. Gender: (if of the 3d person). 

4. ftnmber : singular or plural. 

5. Case : nominative, [possessive] or objective. 

6. Use. 

* What is simply the neuter of icho, with its antecedent (that) omitted : just 
as the antecedent of who is sometimes omitted. Thus the function of who and 
of what is precisely alike in the sentences " Who steals my purse steals trash" 
and " What is done cannot he undone." 



HO ETYMOLOGY. 

Note.— The forms my, thy, his, etc., are most readily disposed of as adjec- 
tives (or possessive adjectives); the independent forms mine, thine, etc., as ! 
possessive pronouns in the nominative or objective, case, according to the con- 
struction. 

178, Eelative Pronouns. — In parsing a relative pronoun^ 
state — 

1. Class. 

2. Antecedent: noun (or its equivalent pronoun, etc.). 

3. Person : first, second, or third. 

4. Gender : masculine, feminine [common], or neuter. 

5. Number : singular or plural. 

6. Case : nominative, possessive, or objective. 

7. Use. 

Note.— A relative pronoun is in the same person, gender, and number as 
its antecedent. 

179. Interrogative Pronouns. — In parsing an interroga- 
tive pronoun, state — 

1. Class. 

2. Gender : masculine, feminine [common], or neuter (according to 
the gender of the noun that answers the question). 

3. Number : singular or plural. 

4. Case s nominative, possessive, or objective. 

5. Use. 



Models for Parsing Pronouns. 

1. Who steals my purse steals trash : 'tis something, nothing — 
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. 
But he that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. 

who is a relative pronoun (used independently of an antece- 
dent),* of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case — subject of the verb " steals." 

* Or having he understood, for its antecedent 






THE PRONOUN.— RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE. \\\ 

it (contracted H in " 'tis") is a personal pronoun, of the third 

person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative 
case— subject of the verb " is." 

it (in " Hwas " and " 'ta's" is to be parsed in a similar manner). 

mine is a pronominal adjective (possessive)* of the first person, 

singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case — 
predicate nominative after the intransitive verb k, was." 

his (parsed in a similar manner as to gender, case, and use). 

he is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and nominative case — subject of the 
verb " robs." 

that ....... is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent the pro- 
noun " he," of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case — subject of the verb " filches." 

me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender.t and objective case — depending on 
the preposition " from." 

me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 

masculine gender, and objective case — object of the verb 
" robs." 

that is a pronominal adjective (demonstrative),! of the third 

person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case 
—depending on the preposition " of." ' 

which is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent "that;" 

of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and 
nominative case — subject of the verb " enriches." 

him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and objective case — object of the 
verb " enriches." 

me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 

masculine gender, and objective case — object of the verb 
" makes." 

* Or, simply, a possessive pronoun. 

t As the person speaking, in this passage from Shakspeare's play of Othello, 
was a man, the pronoun "me" is of the masculine gender. 
X Or, simply, a demonstrative pronoun. 



H2 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. The messenger himself revealed the treachery. 

himself.... is a compound personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number, masculine gender, and nominative case — 
in apposition with the noun " messenger." 

3. O Thou* that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers ! 
thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular num- 
ber, (masculine gender), and nominative case — nominative 
independent. 

that is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent the pro- 
noun "Thou," of the second person, singular number, (mas- 
culine gender), and nominative case — subject of the verb 
" rollest." 

4. I shall not lag behind, nor err 
The way, thou leading. 

I .....is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, 

(gender indeterminate), and nominative case — subject of 
the verb " shall lag." 

thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular num- 
ber (gender indeterminate), and nominative case — nomina- 
tive absolute. 



EXERCISE 18. 

Parse etymologically the italicized pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. We can show you where he lies. — Scott. 

2. Surely, said /, man is but a shadow, and life a dream. — Addison. 

3. Each thought on the woman who loved him best.—Kingsley. 

4. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work; but 

at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him 
sixpence. — Spectator. 

5. Not to know me argues yourself unknown.— Milton. 

6. Teach me thy statutes. — Bible. 

7. There taught us how to live, and (oh ! too high 

The price for knowledge) taught us how to die.— Tickell. 

8. Methought my request was heard, for it seemed to me as though the 

stains of manhood were passing from me, and I were relapsing into 
the purity and simplicity of childhood.— Lamb. 

* The sun. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— PARSING. 113 

9. /know not what course others may take ; but as for me, give me liberty 
or give me death. — Patrick Henry. 

10. Who was the thane lives yet.— Shakspeare. 

11. What in me is dark, 
Illumine; what is low, raise and support. — Milton. 

12. I had a dream which was not all a dream. — Byron. 

13. Ah ! little they think who delight in the strains, 
How the heart of the minstrel is breaking. — Moore. 

14. Oh that those lips had language ! Life has passed 
With me but roughly since I heard thee last. 
Those lips are thine— thy own sweet smile I see, 
The same that oft in childhood solaced me. — Cowper. 

15. Who would fardels bear ? — Shakspeare. 

16. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll \— Byron. 

17. Those who came to laugh remained to pray.— Goldsmith. 

18. We two set upon you four. — Shakspeare. 

19. England herself will sooner treat for peace with us on a footing of inde- 

pendence. — John Adams. 

20. O ye Romans, you are poor slaves. — Shakspeare. 

21. What do you mean, ijou blockhead? 

22. On these and kindred thoughts intent I lay 

^In silence musing by my comrade's side, 
He [being] also 'silent.— Wordsworth. 

23. Thou away, the very birds are mute. — Shakspeare. 

{24. God from the Mount of Sinai, whose gray top 
Shall tremble, he descending, will himself 
Ordain them laws.— Milton. 


III. The Adjective. 

I. PARSING. 

180. An adjective is parsed etymologically by stating — 

1. Its class — limiting (article, pronominal adjective, or numeral 
adjective) or qualifying. 

2. Its degree of comparison (that is, if comparative or superla- 
tive, and omitting comparison if positive). 

3. Its use (see below). 

II. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

181. The two principal relations of the adjective are — 
1. The attributive relation. 2. The predicative relation. 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

I, Attributive. — In the attributive relation or use the 
adjective is closely joined with its noun or pronoun, and is 
never separated from it by a verb.* Thus — 

1. Now Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing, sowed the earth with orknt pearl. 

2. They toe holy ones and weakly 
Who the cross of suffering bore. 

I. In parsing an adjective in the attributive use this function 
need not be specified; it is enough to say that the adjective 
modifies the noun or pronoun [naming it] with which it is 
joined. 

II. An adjective sometimes modifies a noun which is already 
modified by another adjective: as, "A pretty wooden bowl." 
Here pretty does not relate to " bowl ".separately, but to the 
words " wooden-bowl." In such instances the remote adjective 
may be parsed as modifying the noun and proximate adjective 
as one compound term. 

Models of Parsing. 

1. Around the fire one wintry night 
The farmer's rosy children sat. 

the is the definite article, modifying the noun "fire." 

one is a limiting adjective (numeral), modifying the noun 

"night." 

wintry ....is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun "night." 

the is the definite article, modifying the noun "farmer's."! 

rosy is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun "children." 

2. I met a little cottage girl. 

a is the indefinite article, modifying the noun "girl." 

little is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun "girl" as 

modified by the adjective " cottage." 
cottage ...is a noun used as an adjective, modifying the noun " girl." 

* This is called the attributive use because an adjective thus employed ex- 
presses some attribute or property represented as inherent in the object named 
by the noun. The attribute or property is not predicated or asserted of the 
noun, but is assumed as belonging to it. 

t Or, modifying the complex expression "farmer's rosy children." 



THE ADJECTIVE.— EXERCISES. H5 

8. They the holy ones and weakly 
Who the cross of suffering bore. 

holy is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun " ones." 

weakly... .is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun " ones." 

4. His opinion would have greater weight, were it supported by 
some arguments of the least value. 

his is a limiting adjective (possessive), modifying the noun 

" opinion." 
greater.... is a qualifying adjective, in the comparative degree (com- 
pared great, greater, greatest), modifying the noun " weight." 

some is a limiting adjective (indefinite), modifying the noun 

u arguments." 

least is a qualifying adjective, in the superlative degree (com- 
pared little, less, least), modifying the noun " value." 



EXERCISE 19. 

Parse etymologically the italicized adjectives in the fol- 
owing sentences: 

1. I am fond of loitering about country churches, and this was so delight- 

fully situated that it frequently attracted me. It stood on a knoll, 
round which a small stream made a beautiful bend, and then wound its 
way through a long reach of soft meadow scenery. The church was sur- 
rounded by yew-trees, which seemed almost coeval with itself. Its tall 
Gothic spire shot up lightly from among them, with rooks and crows 
generally wheeling about it. — Washington Irving. 

2. There eternal summer dwells, 
And west winds with musky wing 
About the cedar 1 d alleys fling 

Nard and cassia's balmy smells. — Milton. 

3. Three fishers went sailing away to the West.— Kingsley. 

4. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll !— Byron. 

5. For of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these — "It might have been." — Whittier 

6. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.— Shelley. 

7. Like other dull men, the king was all his life suspicious of superior peo- 

ple. — Thackeray. 

8. And first review that long, extended plain, 

And those ivide groves already passed with pain. — Collins. 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 



9. Each ivied arch and pillar lone 

Pleads haughtily for glories gone. — Byron. 
10. If disastrous war should sweep our commerce from the ocean, another 
generation may renew it ; if it exhaust our treasury, future industry 
may replenish it; if it desolate and lay waste our fields, still, under a 
new cultivation, they will grow green again, and ripen to future har- 
vests. It were but a trifle, even if the wall of yonder Capitol were to 
crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and its gorgeous decorations be 
all covered by the dust of the valley. All these might be rebuilt. But 
who shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished government ? Who shall 
rear again the well-proportioned columns of constitutional liberty ? Who 
shall frame together the skilful architecture which unites national 
sovereignty with state rights, individual security, and public prosperity ? 
No ; if these columns fall, they will be raised not again. Like the Coli- 
seum and the Parthenon, they will be destined to a mournful, a melan- 
choly immortality. Bitterer tears, however, will flow over them than 
ever were shed over the monuments of Roman or Grecian art ; they 
will be the remnants of a more glorious edifice than Greece or Rome 
ever saw— the edifice of constitutional American liberty ! — Webster. 






II. Predicative. — In the predicative use* the adjective 
has a double office : 

1. It may be the complement of an intransitive verb ; or 
of a transitive verb in the passive voice. % It is then called 
the predicate adjective. Thus — 

1. The fields are green. 

2. The nation became powerful. 

3. Mary looks cold. 

4. Some men are called happy. 

In this use .the adjective relates to the subject of the verb ; 
but this relation is indirect ; the adjective, taken with the 
verb, expresses the condition of the subject. 

In parsing an adjective thus used, it should be stated that it is 
the complement of the verb [naming it], and relates to the sub- 
ject. Or it may simply be called the predicate adjective. 

* An adjective in the predicative relation must not be confounded with an 
attributive adjective in the predicate, and associated with a noun or pronoun : 
as, "Here are green fields." An adjective is in the predicative relation when 
it completes the sense of the verb, and is not joined directly to a noun or 
pronoun. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— PREDICATIVE. H7 

2. It may relate to a noun-complement of a transitive 
verb, and be at the same time a partial complement of the 
verb. 

1. We call the proud happy. 

2. The streams whereof shall make glad the city of God. 

In this use the adjective, taken with the verb, expresses 
the condition of the object. 

In parsing an adjective thus used, it should be stated that it is 
the complement of the transitive verb [naming it], and relates 
to the object. 

Model for Parsing. 

1. The fields are green. 

green is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the intransi- 
tive verb " are," and relates to the subject " fields " (or, 
it is the predicate adjective after "are," and relates to 
"fields"). 

2. Some men are called happy. 

some is a pronominal adjective, and modifies the noun "ruen." 

happy is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the passive 

verb " are called," and relates to the subject " men." 

3. Leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue. 

pale is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the transitive 

verb k> leave,'' and relates to the object "lily." 

blue is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the transitive 

verb " tinge," and relates to the object " violet." 



EXERCISE 20. 

Parse etymologically the italicized adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. The rainbow comes and goes, 
And lovely is the rose ; 
The moon doth with delight 

Look round her when the heavens are bare; 
Waters on a starry night 

Are beautiful and fair. — Wordsworth. 



H8 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. "0, sir/' said the good woman, "he was such a likely lad— so sweet-tem- 

pered, so kind to every one around him, so dutiful to his parents. — 
Washington Irving. 

3. The stately homes of England, 
How beautiful they stand.— Hemans. 

4. Why call ye me good?— Bible. 

5. Or, if a path be dangerous known, 
The danger's self is lure alone.— Scott. 

6. Come when the heart beats high and warm. — Hallecfc. 

7. Thus, from afar, each dim-discovered scene 

More pleasing seems than all the past have been.— Campbell, 

8. By heaven, I change 
My thought, and hold thy valor light, 

As that of some vain carpet-knight.— Scott. 



IV. The Verb. 



182. In regard to their use in sentences, verbs may be 
divided into two classes : 1. Finite verbs. 2. The verbals. 

The radical distinction between verbs and verbals is that verbs 
are used in predication, and that verbals are not so used. 

I. FINITE VERBS. 

183, Parsing, — A finite verb is parsed as agreeing with 
its subject in person and in number.* Its etymology is 
given thus: 

1. Its conjugation — regular or irregular. 

2. Its class — transitive or intransitive. 

3. Its voice — active or passive (if transitive ; no mention is made 
of voice in intransitive verbs). 

4. Its mood — indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative. 

5. Its tense — present, past, future, etc. (In the imperative, tense 
may be omitted.) 

6. Its person and number — first, second, or third, and singular 
or plural, according to the person and number of the subject. 

* This coincides with the syntactical rule for verbs : its introduction here 
is necessary, siuce, from the paucity of personal endings in English verbs, the 
person and number of a verb can generally be determined only by reference to 
the person and number of its subject. 



THE VERB.— PARSING. H9 

Note.— If a verb is in the progressive, interrogative, or emphatic form, this 
may be noted; if in the common form, nothing need be said as to form. 

Models for Parsing. 

1. Tell me not in mournful numbers 
Life is but an empty dream. 

tell is an irregular transitive verb,* active voice, imperative 

mood, second person, singular number, agreeing with 
its subject you, understood. 
An abbreviated form like the following may be found serviceable : 
" Tell," a verb, irregular, transitive, active, imperative, second singu- 
lar, agreeing with you understood. 

is is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, 

present tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its subject " life." 

2. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike th' inevitable hour. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

gave is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, indicative 

mood, past tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its subject " wealth." 

await is a regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative 

mood, present tense, third person, plural number, 
agreeing with its subjects " boast," " pomp," and " all." 

lead is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, pres- 
ent tense, third person, plural number, agreeing with 
its subject " paths." 

3. I do believe that the lad was telling the truth. 

do believe...... is a regular transitive verb, emphatic form, active 

voice, indicative mood, present tense, first person, sin- 
gular number, agreeing with its subject " I." 

was telling.... is an irregular transitive verb, progressive form, in- 
dicative mood, past tense, third person, singular num- 
ber, agreeing with its subject "lad." 

* Transitive because it requires an object : the object is the clause " [that] 
life is but an empty dream ;" "me" is the indirect object. 



120 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISE 21. 

Parse etymologically the italicized verbs in the following 
sentences : 

1. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 

to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, 
and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal 
station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a 
decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should 
declare the causes which impel them to the separation.— Declaration of 
Independence. 

2. Then shrieked the timid. — Byron. 

3. The grave is the ordeal of true affection.— W. Irving. 

4. So hard a winter had [not] been known for years. — Milman. 

5. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. — Shakspeare. 

6. Each thought on the woman who loved him best. — Kingsley. 

7. Donn flatter* yourselves that friendship authorizes you to say disagree- 

able things to your intimates. On the contrary, the nearer you come 
into relation with a person, the more necessary do [tact and courtesy] 
become. Except in cases of necessity, which are rare, leave your friend 
to learn unpleasant truths from his enemies ; they are ready enough to 
tell them. Good -breeding never forgets that self-love is universal. 
When you read the story of the Archbishop and Gil Bias, you may 
laugh, if you will, at the poor old man's delusion ; but don H forget that 
the youth was the greater fool of the two, and that his master served such 
a booby rightly in turning him out of doors. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

8. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. — Shakspeare. 

9. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. — Byron. 

10. The better part of valor is discretion.— Shakspeare. 

11. At this sultry noontide, I am cupbearer to the parched populace, for 

whose benefit an iron goblet is chained to my waist. Like a dram- 
seller on the mall, at muster-day, I cry aloud to all and sundry, in my 
plainest accents, and at the very tiptop of my voice, Here it is, gentle- 
men fat Here is the good liquor ! Walk up, walk up, gentlemen ; walk 
up, walk up ! — Hawthorne. 

12. The public opinion of the civilized world is [rapidly] gaining an ascend- 

ency over mere brute force. It may be silenced by military power, but 
it can [not] be conquered. — Webster. 

13. In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, 
Alike fantastic if too new or old ; 
Be not the first by whom the new is tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.— Pope. 

* Parse "do flatter." 






THE VERB.— VERBALS. 121 

II. VERBALS. 
I. The Infinitive 

184, The infinitive may be used as — 

I. A 710W1. As a noun an infinitive may serve as — 

1. The subject of a verb: as, " To walk [or, walking] is healthy.'' 

2. The object of a transitive verb : as, " I like to walk [or, walk- 
ing]." 

II. An adjective. In this use the infinitive may serve 
as — 

1. The complement of an intransitive or of a passive verb : as, 
4, He appeared to comply;" "Your mistake is to be deplored*" 
(=dephrable) ; " He is to blame" = (blameworthy). 

2. An attributive adjective relating to a noun: as, "water to 
drink" (^dHnhmg-w&ter ; here k - drinking " is a gerund); "a 
time to laugh ; n " permission to speak." 

III. An adverb, modifying a verb or an adjective : thus — 

1. I have come to see you. 

2. I am sorry to hear this. 

185, A gerund, also, may be used as the object of a prep- 
osition, thus forming an adjective or adverbial phrase: 
as — 

1. Benjamin TVest had as a boy a talent for painting. 

2. Bees are skilful in building their hives. 

3. By working hard we improve. 

186, In parsing an infinitive, state — 

1. Its kind — ordinary infinitive or gerund. 

2. Whether simple or compound. 

3. Its use — as noun, adjective, or adverb. 

Models for Parsing. 

1. To learn is a task indeed. 

to learn is a simple infinitive, used as a noun, and subject of 

the verb u is." 



122 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Talking overmuch is a sign of vanity. 

talking is the simple gerund of the verb focused asanoun, 

and subject of the verb "is." 

3. A miser is to be pitied. 

to be pitied is a simple infinitive, used as adjective complement 

of the verb " is," and relating to " miser." 

4. We are all striving to secure happiness. 

to secure ,..is a simple infinitive, used as an adverb, modifying 

the verb " are striving." ("Are striving to secure " 
=striving/(?r the purpose of securing.) 

5. We are happy in doing our duty. 

doing is the simple gerund of the verb do, used as a noun, 

and depending on the preposition " in." 

6. 'Tis better to have loved and [to have] lost than never to have 

loved at all. 

to have loved.... is a compound infinitive, used as a noun, and sub- 
ject of " is " (introduced by " it"). 

" To have lost" is parsed in the same way; "to have loved (at all)" is sub- 
ject of is, understood. 



II. The Participles. 

187i Participles are attributive words, and are parsed, like 
adjectives, as modifying the noun or pronoun with which 
they are joined in meaning. 

Models for Parsing. 

1. The farmer sat in his easy-chair, 
Smoking his pipe of clay. 

2. His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay; 

Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. 

smoking... is the present (active) participle of the regular transitive 
verb " smoke," modifying the noun " farmer." 






THE VERB.— PARSING. 123 

bent is the past (passive) participle of the irregular transitive 

verb u bend," modifying the noun " head." 



EXERCISE 22. 

Parse etymologically the italicized injmiti/ves and par- 
ticiples in the following sentences: 

1. To be virtuous is to be happy. 

2. Seeing is believing. 

3. I remember to have seen William at the Rink. 

4. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions. 

5. Learn to labor and to wait. 

6. It is painful to see an animal suffering. 

7. His having failed is not surprising. 

8. I recommended turning a new leaf. 

9. Throwing their muskets aside, the soldiers rushed on the foe. 

10. Born to a crown, Louis XVI. died on the scaffold. 

11. They wish to turn him from keeping bad company. 

12. W T hat we always put off doing y 
Clearly we shall never do. 



V. The Adverb. 

188. A simple adverb is used to modify the word with 
which it is joined in meaning. A conjunctive adverb is 
used both as a modifier and as a connective. 

189, In parsing an adverb, state — 

Its class — simple, conjunctive, interrogative, or modal. 
Its comparison (if comparative or superlative; otherwise com- 
parison may be omitted). 
Its use— as above. 

Models for Parsing, 

1. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank I 
Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music 
Creep in our ears. " 

how is a simple adverb, modifying the adjective " sweet." 



[24 ETYMOLOGY. 

here is a simple adverb, modifying the verb " will sit." 

2. Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? 

when.. ..is a conjunctive adverb, modifying the verb "stares," and 
connecting' the clause which it introduces with the previous 
(principal) proposition. 

3. Where are the songs of Spring ? 

where ...is an interrogative adverb, modifying the verb " are." 



EXERCISE 23. 

Parse etymologically the italicized adverbs in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. Washington ate heartily, but was no epicure. He took tea, of which he 

was very fond, early in the evening. — Irving. 

2. Ill fared it then with Roderick Dim. — Scott. 

3. Touch her not scornfully ! 
Think of her mournfully, 
Gently and humanly.— Hood. 

4. The world was all before them where to choose 

Their place of rest, and Providence their guide. — Milton. 

5. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! — Longfellow. 

6. And when above the surges 

They saw his crest appear, 
All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
And even the ranks of Tuscany 

Could scarce forbear to cheer. — Macaulay. 

7. Why should we shrink from what we cannot shun ?— Byron. 



VI. The Preposition, Conjunction, and 
Interjection. 

I. THE PREPOSITION. 

190. The use of the preposition is to form with its ob- 
ject a phrase: thus — 

1. There is rest for the weary. 

2. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple oeauty and [of] rustic health. 



THE PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION. 125 

The combination of words formed by the preposition and object 
is termed a prepositional phrase. (This is to distinguish it from 
a participial phrase ; see § 218). 

191 1 In parsing a preposition proceed as follows: 

1. Name the part of speech. 

2. State what two words it joins — naming the object first. 

Model. — Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. 

around ...is a preposition, and joins the noun u rocks" to the verb 
"ran." 



EXERCISE 24. 

Parse etymologically the prepositions in the following 
sentences : 

1. The thunders bellowed over the wide waste of waters. — Irving. 

2. A murmuring whisper through the nunnery ran. — Tennyson. 

3. He goes on Sunday to the church. — Longfellow. 

4. I seek divine simplicity in him 
Who handles things divine.— Cowper. 

5. He starts from his dream at the blast of the horn. — Wilson. 

6. Through all the wild October days the clash and din resounded in the 

air. — Dickens. 

7. But on the hill the golden-rod, and the aster in the wood, 

And the yellow sunflower by the brook, in autumn beauty stood. 

— Bryant. 

8. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow.— Shakspeare. 

9. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 

10. In the spring of 1493, while the court was still at Barcelona, letters were 
received from Christopher Columbus, announcing his return to Spain, 
and the successful achievement of his great enterprise, by the dis- 
covery of land beyond the western ocean. — Prescott. 



II. THE CONJUNCTION. 

192. The use of the conjunction is to connect sentences 
and the elements of sentences — the co-ordinate conjunctions 
connecting sentences and elements of equal rank ; and the 
subordinate conjunctions connecting dependent with princi- 
pal propositions. 



126 ETYMOLOGY. 

193i In parsing a conjunction, state (1) its class and (2) 
what it connects. 

EXERCISE 25. 

Parse etymologically the italicized conjunctions in the 
following sentences: 

1. When my time was expired, I worked my passage home ; and glad I was 

to see Old England again, because I loved my country. — Goldsmith. 

2. Some murmur when their sky is clear, 

And wholly bright to view, 
If one small speck of dark appear 

In their great heaven of blue.— Trench. 

3. 'Twas noon, 
And Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool 
In the lone wilderness. 

4. Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth unseen, 
Both when we wake and when we sleep.— Milton. 



194, The Interjection. — The interjection is parsed by 
simply naming it : it has no grammatical relations in the 
sentence. 



METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. 



Noun. 



The method of abbreviated parsing here presented is based on the 
principle of enumerating only such grammatical forms as affect the 
construction, and of omitting what may be understood in the terms 
of statement ; as, singular for " singular number," indicative for " in- 
dicative mood," etc. 

Number — singular or plural. (Number in proper nouns 

omitted). 
Case — nominative, possessive, or objective (as denoted by 
form or use). 

Omitted: class, person, and gender— as not affecting the construction. 
When, however, a noun is in the 2d or 3d person, the fact may be stated. 

Class— personal, relative, or interrogative. 

Person — (in personal pronouns ; in relative pronouns 

of the 1st or 2d person only). 
Number — singular or plural. 
Pronoun.... \ Gender— (in personal pronouns of the 3d person singu- 
lar only). 
Case — (nominative or objective as denoted by use: 
possessives to be parsed as adjectives or as 
pronominals, nominative or objective). 

Omitted: person in all but the personal pronouns and in relatives of 1st 
and 2d persons ; gender in all but the personal pronoun of the 3d pers. sing. 

( Class — limiting (pronominal) or qualifying. 
Adjective... \ Comparison — (if comparative or superlative). 
[ Office — attributive or complementary. 



Omitted : subdivisions of limiting adjectives ; degree, if positive. 



128 METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. 

' Conjugation — regular or irregular. 
Class — transitive or intransitive. 
Voice — (only if passive). 

Verb -{ Mood — indicative, potential, etc. 

Tense— present, past, etc. 
Pebson— -first, second, or third. 
Number — singular or plural. 



Adverb. 



' Class — simple or conjunctive. 
Comparison — (if comparative or superlative). 
Office — (if simple, What does it modify ? If conjunc- 
tive, What propositions does it connect ?) 

Prepositions. . . .words connected. 
Conjunctions... words or propositions connected. 

I. MODEL OF ABBREVIATED ORAL PARSING. 

After Wellington's victory at Waterloo, Napoleon, the Emperor of 
France, was banished to St. Helena, a desolate island in the At- 
lantic Ocean. 

after is a preposition, connecting "victory" with "was 

banished. " 

Wellington's is a noun in the possessive case, modifying "vic- 
tory." 

victory is a noun in the objective singular, depending on 

"after." 

at is a preposition, connecting "Waterloo" with 

" victory." 

Waterloo is a noun in the objective case, depending on "at." 

Napoleon .is a noun in the nominative case, subject of "was 

banished." 

the is a limiting adjective, limiting "Emperor." 

Emperor is a noun in the nominative singular, in apposition 

with " Napoleon." 

of. is a preposition, connecting "France" with "Em- 
peror.' ' 



'! 



METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. 



129 



was banished is a regular transitive verb, passive, in the third 

person singular, past indicative. 

to is a preposition, connecting "St. Helena" with 

" was banished." 

a is a limiting adjective, limiting "island." 

desolate is a qualifying adjective, modifying "island." 

island is a noun in the objective singular, in apposition 

with " St. Helena." 

in is a preposition, connecting " Atlantic Ocean" with 

"island." 

Atlantic Ocean... is a noun in the objective singular, depending on 



II. MODEL OF ABBREVIATED WRITTEN PARSING. 

Speech is a great blessing to mankind ; but, alas ! we too often 
pervert it. 



WORD. 


CLASS. 


GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 


OFFICE. 


Speech.. . 


noun 


sing., nom. 


subject of "is" 


is 


verb 


irreg. intran., indie, 
pres., 3d sing. 


agreeing with "Speech" 


a 


limiting adj. 




limiting "blessing" 
modifying "blessing" 


great 


adjective 




blessing. . 


noun 


sing., nom. 


complement of "is" 


to 


preposition 




coDnectiug ''mankind" 
and "blessing" 


mankind.. 


noun 


sing., obj. 


depending on "to" 


but 


conjunction 




connecting the two prop- 
ositions 


alas ! 


interjection 






we 


pers. pronoun 


1st pers., pi., nom. 


subject of "pervert" 


too 


adverb 




modifying "often* 1 


often 


adverb 




modifying "pervert" 


pervert. . . 


verb 


reg. trans., indie, 
pres., 1st pi. 




it 


pers. pronoun 


3d pers. sing , neut., 
obj. 


object of "pervert" 



F2 



130 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

[For Reference.] 

a article: "a beautiful face." 

preposition : " I go a-fishing." 
after* preposition: "You came after me." 

adverb: (simple), " You came soon after;" (conjunctive), 
" You came after I lefV't 
above preposition : " above tbe ground ;" " above mean actions." 

adverb : " that rollest above." 

adjective : " the above remarks ;" " the above rule." 

1. The adjective use of "above" is generally condemned by grammarians, 
^ut it seems to be firmly established. 

2. The metaphorical application of u above," as in the phrase "above com- 
prehension," readily passes over to the meaning more than; as," above the 
price of rubies ; " " above a dozen " [dozen, a noun]. 

all adjective: "All men are mortal." 

pronominal . " each for all, all for each." 

noun : "All is lost." 

adverb : "all round the world." 
any .adjective: "a?iyage;" " any complaints." 

pronominal : " Who is here so base that would be a bond- 
man ? If any, speak." 

adverb : " Are you any better?" 
asf adverb: (simple) "As brave as a lion." 

(Conjunctive) "He spoke as we entered;" "as far as we 
can see." 

* Termed : Continuative conjunction (Morrell). — Usually called a conjunc- 
tion ; better an adverb (Mason).— Relative adverb or subordinating conjunction 
(Bain). 

t In older English the usual conjunctive form was " after that : " as, " After 
that I was turned I repented." — Bible. This would indicate that, in its con- 
nective office, "after" is a preposition rather than a conjunction, the construc- 
tion being that of a preposition followed by a noun-clause : " after [that I was 
turned]." 

X Termed: Continuative conjunction (Morrell). — Conjunctive or connective 
adverb, in some cases ; subordinative conjunction in other cases (Mason). — 
Relative or conjunctive adverb, or subordinating conjunction (Bain). 






I NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. \%\ 

conjunction : "As he was ambitious, I slew him." 
pronominal : " I have not such kind treatment as I used 
to have " (=which I used to have). 

1. "As" is from a pronominal root (all-so), and signifies in which way or in 
that way. This pronominal sense is at the root of the word in all its uses : 
thus, " brave in that a lion [is brave] ; " " in that he was ambitious, I slew him ;" 
U I have not kind treatment [in the way] in which I used to have." 

2. u As" is now used as a relative only in correlation with a preceding 
such or same; but the vulgarism, "This is the boy as I saw yesterday" is an 
exemplification of its original pronominal meaning. 

below preposition: "high life below stairs." 

adverb : " Go bebw." 

noun : " The power comes from below." 
beside preposition : " Sit beside me." 

adverb : " Beloved of heaven o'er all the world beside." 

but preposition: " All but him had fled ;"* " None knew thee 

but to love thee." 

conjunction : " I go, but I return." 

adverb : " 'Tis lut [=only] a little faded flower;" " I can 

but lament the result."t 

But is sometimes used with the force of a negative relative, when it has a 
negative correlative : as— 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
But has one vacant chair. — Longfellow. 

In this construction u but" is equivalent to that . . . not or who . . . not. 
This force, however, it acquires through ellipsis. Thus, in Shakspeare, "I 
found no man but he was true to me," where but as a preposition governs the 
proposition "he was true to me." 

* " But," as thus used, is a true preposition, being originally be-out=without, 
or except (Anglo-Saxon be-utan, butan) ; it should not be confounded with the 
conjunction but. To such an extent has the prepositional use of "but" been 
forgotten, that many grammarians regard the word as a conjunction only ; they 
condemn as violations of grammar the constructions, 

There was no one present but me. 

They all went away but him; 

substituting but I and but he, which is correcting good English into bad. 

t The adverbial force of "but" here arises from the ellipsis of a negative. 
The construction was originally, "I can not but lament the result," "lament" 
being an infinitive governed by the preposition " but." So, " That I may have 
not but my meat and drink."— Chaucer. 



132 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

else adjective: "any one else" (=any other one); "nobody 

else" (=no other body, or person). 

adveeb : " Where else can such fruits be found ?" 

conjunction: "He must be sick, else he would have 

written to us."* 

enough.... adverb : " He has been punished enough." 

noun : " We have had enough of action." 

adjective : " We have not enough men " (adjective in use, 

though really a noun with of omitted) . 

" I have not enough men :" adverb in position ; adjective in use. 

fast adjective : " a fast horse." 

advebb: "You talk fast." 

"Fast" may be taken as a type of a considerable class of monosyllabic ad- 
jectives which are often used as adverbs : as, " to work hard" " to speak loud," 
u to rise high" etc. In Anglo-Saxon and early English the adverbial form 
was marked by a final e, as hard (adj.), hard-e (adv.). When this e became silent 
and was dropped, the adverbial form became identical with the adjective.! 

for preposition: " He works for his bread ;" "for us." 

conjunction: "He pressed on, for his ambition was still 

unsatisfied." 

full adjective: "sbfull measure;" "full satisfaction." 

adverb : "full many a flower." 

hard adjective : " hard wood ;" +' The diamond is hard." 

adverb : " The lad studies hard;" " The castle stood hard 

by a forest " (adverb modifying adverbial phrase " by 

a forest"). 

however... ad verb : " Death spares none, however powerful." 

conjunction: "However, he was not inclined to take that 

course ; " " That course, however, he was not inclined 

to take." 

"However," as a co-ordinate conjunction, is a contraction of however it be, 
and hence is, fundamentally, adverbial. 

* " Else " (anciently written elles) is the genitive (possessive) case of an Old- 
English root el or al, meaning other. Its various meanings go back to this 
radical: thus, u any one else"=any one of other ; "where else"=where of 
other (places) ; " else he would have written "—of other (state or condition) he 
would have written. 

f Morris : Historical Grammar, p. 190. 



I 



NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH, 133 

like verb : M I like a rascal to be punished. n 

noun : " I ne'er shall look upon his like again." 
adjective : " The boy is like his mother." 
adverb : " He talks like a fool." 

Here the adverb "like" is itself modified by the adverbial phrase " [to] a 
fool." 

more adjective: " more pudding ;" " more books." 

adverb : " more beautiful ;" " Sleep no more. 11 
noun : " He is seeking for ?nore ;" " Say no more.' 1 

The adjective use of " more" comes from a confusion of the adverbial use : 
i. e., instead of saying " some pudding more, 11 we have come to say " some more 
pudding/ 1 

near adjective: "the near approach of winter;" "Summer is 

near 11 
adverb : " Come near" 
preposition : " He sat near me." 

"Near" was originally an adjective, but acquired the office of an adverb, 
and at last of a preposition. Though seemingly in the positive degree, it is 
really a comparative form from neah—nigh: thus, "the mar (=the nearer) in 
blood, the nearer bloody." — Shakspeare. 

needs noun: "My needs are small." 

adverb : " He needs must go."* 
verb : wk He needs to go." 

now adverb : " Go to bed now. 11 

conjunction : " Not this man, but Barrabas ; now Bar- 
rabas was a robber." 

so adverb : " So frowned the combatants ;" " Richard is not 

so tall as Henry." 
conjunction : " There Was nothing to be seen, so we went 
our way." 

"So" has sometimes a pronominal use: as, "Whether he is a genius or 
not, he is considered so" (=a genius). It has, indeed, a general representative 
power: as, "David was wise; Solomon was more so" (=wise). "If you are 
busy, say so 11 (=that you are busy). 

* " Needs," as an adverb, is an old genitive (possessive) case singular : " He 
needs must go"=He must of need [of necessity] go. 



134 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

since preposition : " since the Flood ;" " since yesterday." 

conjunction : " Since you command, I must obey." 
adverb : " Two years have passed since last we met." 

that.- adjective: "that house;" " that pleasure." 

pronominal : " We heard the minister's speech, but not 

that of the doctor." 
rel. pronoun : " the man that hath no music in himself." 
conjunction : " We know that Mars has satellites. 

what rel. pronoun : " He obtained what he sought." 

inter, pronoun : " What is the news ?" 
adjective : " What sufferings we have endured." 
adverb : " What with generosity and what with extrava- 
gance, the man was ruined." 
interjection : " What ! Did Caesar swoon V } 

while verb: "Thus we while away our time." 

noun : " I love to steal a while away." 
adverb : " I will watch while you sleep." 

worth noun: " Worth makes the man." 

adjective : " A ring he hath of mine worth forty ducats ;" 
" To reign is worth ambition." 

Many grammarians class "worth" among the prepositions;* but it is an 
adjective, and the noun following it is in the objective adverbial. Thus, 
"worth forty ducats "=valuable by forty ducats (measure of value, see p. 105). 

* " Worth has the construction of a preposition, as it admits of the objective 
case after it, without an intervening preposition."— Worcester's Dictionary. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 



135 



GENERAL REVIEW OF ETYMOLOGY. 



1. What is etymology? 

2. Name the parts of speech. 

3. Define " grammatical form." 

4. Name the grammatical forms. 

5. What are the four modes of de- 

noting a grammatical form ? 

6. Which parts of speech have, 

and which have not, gram- 
matical forms ? 

7. Define noun. 

8. What are the tests of the noun ? 

9. What are the classes of nouns ? 

10. Define common noun ; proper ; 

abstract. 

11. Enumerate the grammatical 

forms of the noun. 

12. Define number : singular ; 

plural. 

13. Give the general rule for the 

plural of nouns. 

14. Give an example of plural by 

radical change ; of an inde- 
terminate form. 

15. How is the plural of compounds 

formed ? 

16. Define gender : masculine ; 

feminine ; common ; neuter. 

17. How is the feminine gender of 

nouns denoted ? 

18. Define case. 

19. How many cases of nouns? 

20. Define nominative case ; pos- 

sessive case; objective case. 

21. Give the rule for forming the 

possessive. 

22. What is the origin of '$ f 



Define person in nouns. 

How is it known ? 

Define pronoun. 

What are the three classes of 
pronouns ? 

Define personal pronoun. 

How many grammatical forms 
has a personal pronoun ? 

Define relative pronoun. 

Define antecedent. 

What are the interrogative pro- 
nouns ? 

Decline icho; which. 

Give an example of a possessive 
adjective (or pronoun) ; of a 
demonstrative; of an indefi- 
nite; of a distributive. 

What peculiar office have rela- 
tive pronouns ? 

Define verb. 

What are its distinguishing 
marks ? 

Into what two classes are verbs 
divided ? 

Define transitive verb — intran- 
sitive. 

What is a complement? 

Define auxiliary. 

What are the two verbals ? 

Define infinitive ; participle. 

Enumerate the grammatical 
forms of the verb. 

Define voice. 

What is meant by the active 
voice ? the passive voice ? 

How is the passive voice formed I 



136 



ETYMOLOGY. 



47. Define mood. 

48. How many moods are there ? 

49. How is the indicative mood 

used? the potential? the sub- 
junctive ? the imperative ? 

50. What is tense ? 

51. Enumerate the six tenses. 

52. Name the tenses of the indica- 

tive mood. 

53. Name the tenses of the poten- 

tial mood. 

54. Name the tenses of the subjunc- 

tive mood. 

55. How many tenses has the im- 

perative mood ? 

56. What are the two infinitives ? 

57. What are the two gerunds ? 

58. How many participles are 

there? 

59. Define number and person in 

verbs. 

60. What is the origin of ed in the 

past tense ? 

61. What is conjugation? 

62. How many conjugations are 

there ? 

63. Define a regular verb ; an ir- 

regular verb. 

64. What are the principal parts 

of a verb? Of walk? 

65. Give a synopsis of walk in 2d 

pers. sing. ; in 3d pers. pi. 

66. Define defective verb; uniper- 

sonal ; redundant. 

67. What are the chief auxiliaries ? 

68. Define progressive form ; em- 

phatic, interrogative. 

69. What is the origin of shall ? 

70. Define adjective. 

71. How are adjectives classified ? 

72. What is a limiting adjective ? 



73. Into what three classes are lim- 

iting adjectives subdivided ? 

74. Name the articles. 

75. Define pronominal adjective. 

76. What subdivisions of pronom- 

inal adjectives are made ? 

77. What is a cardinal numeral ? 

78. Define qualifying adjective. 

79. What is comparison ? 

80. How are the comparative and 

superlative degrees formed? 

81. Explain tetter; worse. 

82. Define adverb. 

83. Give the origin of when; where; 

why. 

84. How are adverbs compared ? 

85. Define preposition. 

86. Name the simple prepositions. 

87. What does a preposition govern ? 

88. Define conjunction. 

89. How are conjunctions classified? 

90. Define co-ordinate conjunction ; 

subordinate conjunction. 

91. Give three co-ordinate and two 

subordinate conjunctions. 

92. Define interjection. 

93. Enumerate the nine uses of the 

noun. 

94. Which eight uses of the pro- 

noun are the same as those 
of the noun ? 

95. State the two uses of the ad- 

jective. 

96. State the difference of office 

between a finite verb and a 
verbal. 

97. What are the three uses of the 

infinitive ? 

98. What use has the adverb ? 

99. What use has the preposition ? 

100. What use has the conjunction? 



SECTION II. 

SYNTAX. 



DEFINITIONS. 

195. Syntax* is that division of grammar which treats of 
the relations of words in sentences. 

196. Grammatical Eelations. — There are seven principal 
relations in which words may stand in a sentence : — 

I. The subjective relation, — of subject to predicate. 
For the definition of subject, see § 209 ; of predicate, see § 210. 

II. The predicative relation, — of predicate to subject. 

III. The attributive relation, — of adjunct to the word 
modified. 

An attributive word, or adjunct (see § 211), is a word used with a 
noun or pronoun to modify its meaning. It may be (1) an adjec- 
tive or a participle; (2) a noun p>ossessive; (3) a noun appositive. 

IV. The complementary relation, — of complement to in- 
complete verb. 

Y. The adverbial relation,— of adverb to verb, etc. 

VI. The representative relation, — of pronoun to the noun 
or pronoun represented. 

VII. The connective relation, — of preposition or conjunc- 
tion to the words connected. 

* From Greek syn, together, and taxis, arrangement. 



138 SYNTAX. 

To these may be added — 

VIII. The absolute and independent constructions, in 
which words have no grammatical relation to the other 
parts of the sentence. 

197. Constructions.— In the syntax of words two forms 
of construction are found — regular constructions and ir- 
regular constructions. 

198. Eegtllar constructions are those that follow the gen- 
eral rules for the combination of words in sentences. They 
are expressed in the Rules of Syntax (see page 140). 

199. An irregular or peculiar construction, sometimes 
called an idiom, is one that departs from the ordinary form 
or meaning of words, or from the usual manner of combin- 
ing words : as, " How do you do ?" " This heart of mineP 

The irregularity that constitutes a particular turn of expression 
an idiom is due to the operation of several laws of language, 
among which the most important are : 

Law I. Desire of brevity. 

Law II. Extension of a construction beyond its original scope. 

Law III. Desire of euphony. 

Note.— The operation of these important principles will best be shown in 
connection with the idiomatic forms under the several rules of syntax. 

200. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or of words neces- 
sary to complete the grammatical structure of the sentence : 
thus — 

1. Whose is this image and superscription ? They say unto Him, 

Ccesar's [image and superscription]. — English Bible. 

2. Hadst thou the same free will and power to stand ? 

Thou hadst [the same free will and power to stand]. — Milton. 









NOTE ON SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 139 

201. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words : thus — 

1. The world it is empty, the heart will die. — Coleridge. 

2. Yon silver beams, 
Sleep they less sweetly on the cottage- thatch 
Than on the dome of kings ? — Shelley. 



NOTE ON SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

I. What is called analysis (i. e., sentential analysis) is a kind of 
general syntax, being equally applicable to all languages. Syntax treats 
of the grammatical relations of the parts of speech ; analysis, of the logi- 
cal relations of the constituent elements of a sentence ; that is, of their 
relations in the expression of thought. Taken together they constitute 
that branch of language-study which may be termed the Doctrine of 
the Sentence. The difference between the two, in the manner of con- 
sidering a sentence, may be seen from the following example : 

" Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

"Now" is an adverb, and modifies ' "Now fades the glimmering," etc., 

the verb M fades." J is a simple sentence. 

"Fades" is a regular intransitive The grammatical subject is "land- 
verb, indicative mood, present tense, scape." 

third person, singular, to agree with The grammatical subject is modified 

the nonn "landscape." by the adjective elements "the' 1 

"The" is the definite article, and and "glimmering," thus forming the 

limits " landscape." logical subject " the glimmering land- 

k4 Glimmering" is a qualifying ad- scape." 

jective, and modifies "landscape." The grammatical predicate is 

"Landscape" is a common noun, "fades." 

of the singular number, neuter gender, The grammatical predicate is modi- 

and nominative case, subject of" fades." fied by the adverb "now," and by the 

" On " is a preposition, and connects adverbial phrase " on the sight," thus 

"sight" with "fades." forming the logical predicate, u now 

"The " (as before). fades on the sight." 

"Sight" is a common noun, of the 
singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case, depending on the prep- 
osition "on." 

II. Syntax treats only of the grammatical construction of sentences, 
and is limited to a single aim — namely, to secure by obedience to 
the rules governing the grammatical relations of words, correctness in 
the formation of sentences. All else— as beauty, strength, etc. — is be- 
yond t y e scope of grammar, and pertains to rhetoric. 



140 SYNTAX. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

1. Subjective Eelation. 

Rule I. — The subject of a verb is in the nominar 
tive case. 

2. Predicative Eelation. 

Rule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in person 
and number. 

3. Attributive Eelation, 

Rule III. — Adjectives and participles modify 
nouns or pronouns. 

Rule IV. — A noun modifying another noun sig- 
nifying a different thing is in the possessive case. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used to explain 
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in 
the same case. 

4. Complementary Eelation. 

Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb is in 
the objective case. 

Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun used as the com- 
plement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the 
nominative case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 141 

5, Adverbial Eelation. 

Rule VIII. — An adverb modifies a verb, an ad- 
ective, or another adverb. 

6. Eepresentative Eelation. 

Rule IX. — A pronoun agrees in person, gender, 
and number with its antecedent or the word that it 
represents. 

7, Connective Eelation. 

Rule X. — -1. A preposition joins a noun or pro- 
noun to some other word. 

2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition 
is in the objective case. 

Rule XI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
or propositions. 

8, Absolute and Independent Constructions. 

Rule XII. — 1. A noun or pronoun whose case 
depends on no other word is put in the nominative 
absolute. 

2. The nominative independent and the interjec- 
tion have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
of the sentence. 

Note.— For the Syntax of Moods and Tenses, and of the Verbals, see 
page 197. 



142 SYNTAX. 



I. SUBJECTIVE RELATION. 

THE SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 

Rule I.— The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 
The subject of a verb may be either a noun or one of its equiva- 
lents — namely, a pronoun, an infinitive, a phrase, or a proposi- 
tion: thus — 

1. God is our fortress. 

2. He comes, the herald of a rising world. 

3. To be contents his natural desire. 

4. To see the sun is pleasant. 

5. What one man owns cannot belong to another. 



EXERCISE 26. 

In the following sentences apply Rule I.* 

1. Flashed all their sabres bare. — Tennyson. 

2. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. — Shakspeare. 

3. Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. — Webster. 

4. She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there. — Drake. 

5. To do aught good never will be our task.— Milton. 

6. Jerusalem has derived some reputation from the number and importance 

of her memorable sieges. — Gibbon. 

7. The service past, around the pious man, 

With ready zeal, each honest rustic ran. — Goldsmith. 

8. Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn. — Milton. 

9. Whatever is, is right. — Pope. 

10. Dust thou art, to dust returnest, 

Was not spoken of the soul.— Longfellow. 



* It is recommended that the parsing exercises be now confined to syntactical 
parsing. Model (sentence 1): "The noun sabres is the subject of the verb 
flashed^ and hence is in the nominative case according to Rule I." 



RULE L— APPLIED SYNTAX. 143 

APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE I. 

I. Violations of Rule I. 

Case 1. — In the use of the objective instead of the nominative case 
of relative and interrogative pronouns : thus — 

Whom would you suppose stands first in our class ? 

Incorrect : " whom," in the objective case is made the subject of the 
verb " stands ;" but it should be in the nominative case, who, accord- 
ing to Rule I. Hence — 

Caution 1. — When a relative or an interrogative pronoun is sepa- 
rated by intervening words from the verb of which it is the subject, 
care must be taken that the pronoun is in the nominative form. 

Case 2. — When there is an ellipsis of the verb : thus — 

1. Is she as tall as me? — ShaJcspeare. 

2. She suffers hourly more than me. — Swift. 

3. The nations not so blessed as thee. — Thomson. 

4. It is not for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. — 

Walter Scott. 

5. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. — Thackeray. 

The above sentences, each by a famous author, all violate the rule. 
The error becomes evident when the ellipsis is supplied : thus, (1) "as 
tall as me am;" (2) u more than me do;" (3) u not so blessed as thee 
art;" (4) u such as us are;" (5) " than you or me are." Hence — 

Caution 2. — In elliptical sentences — especially when the verb is 
omitted after a pronoun subject following than or as — care must be 
taken that the pronoun designed as the subject of the verb understood 
is in the nominative form. 



II. Special Rules. 

Special Rule I.— A noun or pronoun designed by construction to be 
the subject of a verb must have, expressed or understood, a verb of which 
it is the subject. 

Ex. — Two substantives, when they come together, and do not 
signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. 



144 SYNTAX. 

The noun " substantives " is evidently designed to be the subject 
of some verb, but there is no verb of which it is the subject. To cor- 
rect the sentence it must be reconstructed. Thus, " When two sub- 
stantives not signifying the same thing come together, the former must 
be in the genitive case." 

Special Rule II.— The verb of which a noun or pronoun is the subject 
may be omitted when from the construction it is readily supplied, Thus— 
She will relent some time ; he, never. 






NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. It. — By an idiom of our language the pronoun it, in such con- 
structions as " It was impossible to recognize him," serves to introduce 
a verb, the real (or logical) subject of which is placed after the verb. 
" It was impossible," etc. = 7b recognize him was impossible. In this 
construction " it " may be parsed as the anticipative subject, and the 
real subject as the logical subject. 

II. There. — The word there has a similar office in such sentences as 
" There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin v =z A poor exile of Erin 
came to the beach. " There " may be parsed as a pronominal (or ex- 
pletive), used as the anticipative subject. 



EXERCISE 27. 

In the following, correct the violations of Eule I. 

1. You and me will go together. 

2. Them that seek wisdom will be wise. 

3. He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, whom he saw were off 

their guard. 

4. Whom do you think called on me this morning? 

5. This is a man whom I think deserves encouragement. 

6. My brother is a better swimmer than him. 

7. Is James as old as me ? 

8. Such a man as him could never be President. 
0. Are you taller than her? 

\0. Two nations, when one makes war on the other, it is sometimes difficult 
to tell where the blame lies. 



RULE II.— AGREEMENT OF VERB. 145 



II. PREDICATIVE RELATION 

AGKEEMENT OF VEKB. 

Rule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

Note. — The logical necessity of this rule may be thus stated: In any 
sentence the verb and the subject are spoken of the same thing. They 
must, therefore, agree with each other in those grammatical forms 
which they have in common, otherwise there would be a contradiction 
in terms. Now the grammatical forms common to the verb and the 
noun or pronoun are person and number. It is true that, owing to the 
paucity of inflections in the English verb, conformity of person and 
number appears only to a limited extent in visible signs ; neverthe- 
less, there is and there must be logical concord as respects the common 
relations of verb and subject. 



EXERCISE 28. 

In the following sentences apply Rule IL* 

1. Father, thy hand 

Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof. — Bryant. 

2. Tou say you are a better soldier.— Shakspeare. 

3. Then ye are only five. — Wordsicorth. 

4. Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand-Pre\ 

— Longfellow, 

5. One morn a Peri at the gate of heaven stood disconsolate. — Moore. 

6. Where De Soto was buried cannot be determined.— Bancroft. 

7. A little learning is a dangerous thing; 

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.— Pope. 

8. He prayeth best who loveth best 

All things both great and small ; 
For the dear God who loveth us, 
He made and loveth all.— Coleridge. 



* Model : "Hath reared, a verb in the third person singular, agrees with its 
subject hand, according to Rule II. ; didst weave, a verb in the second person 
singular, agrees with its subject thou, according to Rule II. n 

G 



146 SYNTAX. 

9. The Accusing Spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery with the oath, 
blushed as he gave it in ; and the Recording Angel, as he wrote it down, 
dropped a tear upon the word, and blotted it out forever. — Sterne. 

10. We know that if we could cause this structure to ascend, not only till it 

reached the skies, but till it pierced them, its broad surfaces could 
still contain but part of that which, in an age of knowledge, hath al- 
ready been spread over the earth, and which history charges itself 
with making known to all future times. — Daniel Webster. 

11. Then methought the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer 
Swung by Seraphim whose footfalls tinkled on the tufted floor. 

" Wretch," I cried, " thy God hath lent thee— by these angels he hath 

sent thee 
Respite— respite and nepenthe from thy memories of Lenore! 
Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore !" 
Quoth the raven— "Nevermore!" — Poe. 






APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE II. 

I. Violations of Rule II. 

Case 1. — When the verb is made to agree, not with its real sub- 
ject, but with some modifying word or phrase : thus — 

His reputation was great, and somewhat more durable than that 
of similar poets have generally been. 

Incorrect : the plural form of the verb " have " is used with a subject 
in the singular number, " that." It should be " has generally been." 
The cause of the mistake is that the verb " have " is attracted into the 
same number as " poets ;■" but as the phrase " of similar poets " is a 
mere adjunct of " that," it can have no influence on the number of 
the verb. Hence — 

Caution 1. — The adjuncts of a subject do not control the number 
of the verb. 

Case 2. — When there is misapprehension as to the number of a 
relative pronoun used as subject : thus — 

This is one of the most valuable books that has appeared in any 
language. 
Incorrect : the verb " has " should agree with its subject, the rela- 
tive "that;" now, "that" is in the plural (see Rule IX.), because 
"books," its antecedent, is in the plural; it should, therefore, be 
" that have appeared." Hence — 



RULE II.— AGREEMENT OF VERB. 147 

Caution 2. — When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, 
the antecedent determines the number of the verb. 

Case 3. — When an improper ellipsis of the verb occurs : thus — 

A bundle of papers was produced, and such particulars as the 
following detailed. 

There is an ellipsis of the auxiliary before the participle " detailed." 
But this ellipsis is improper, because on supplying icas (expressed be- 
fore %k produced ") we have, " such particulars was detailed." The 
auxiliary were should be supplied. Hence — 

Caution 3. — Generally no ellipsis of the verb is allowable when 
the verb, if supplied, would not agree with its subject. 



II. Special Rules under Rule II. 

Special Rule I.— Two or more subjects in the singular connected by 
and, and conveying plurality of idea, require a verb in the plural : as, 
4 'Mars and Jupiter have been visible this week." 

I. Person.— A verb having two or more subjects of different per- 
* sons connected by and is in the plural number, by Special Rule I. 

As to the person to be attributed to the verb, that is determined 
by the following tests : 

If one of the subjects is in the first person, the verb is parsed as in 
the first person plural : "He and I (=zwe) are to go." 

If one of the subjects is in the second person (there being no sub- 
ject in the first person), the verb is parsed as in the second 
person plural: a Yau and James are [second person plural] to 
go." 

II. Coupled Subjects Singular.— The following are instances of 
coupled subjects which convey, not plurality, but unity of idea. 
In such cases the verb is in the singular. 

i . Two or more nouns designating one individual : as — 
An eminent scholar and judicious critic has said. 
That is, one individual who was both a " scholar" and a " critic." 

2. Two or more nouns synonymous, or nearly so : thus — 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. 



148 SYNTAX. 

3. Two or more nouns considered separately, by means of the 
limiting words each, every, or no: thus — 

1. Each day and each hour brings its own duties. 

2. Every limb and every feature appears with its appropriate grace. 

3. No book and no paper was arranged. 

4. Two nouns representing a single compound object : as— 

The wheel and axle was out of repair=the wheel together with the 
axle. 

5. Two nouns, of which one is excluded from the affirmation by 
the adverb not : thus — 

Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, forms our true honor* 

In this construction two propositions are implied, viz. : " Our 
heart forms our true honor," and " Other men's opinions do not form 
our true honor." The verb agrees with the subject of the affirmative 
proposition, and is understood with the other. 

Special Rule II.— Two or more subjects in the singular separated by 
or or nor require a verb in the singular: as, "He or his brother has the 
book." "Neither this nor that is the thing wanted." 

If one of the subjects be in the plural, it must be placed next the 
verb, which must also be in the plural; as, "Neither the em- 
peror nor his generals were convinced." 

Special Rule III.— A verb having two or more subjects of different 
persons connected by or or nor, agrees with the subject nearest to it, 
and must be understood with the rest in the required person and number. 

Thus— 

1. Either he or I am to blame. 

2. You or Thomas is mistaken. 

3. Neither Jane nor you study. 

Note. — The construction exemplified in the preceding sentences is not to 
be commended as illustrating the best usage. It is generally preferable either 
to put the verb with the first subject, repeating it in its proper form with the 
6econd, or to change the construction. Thus : 

1. Either he is to blame or I am. 

2. You are mistaken or Thomas is. 

3. Jane does not study, nor do you. 



RULE IL— AGREEMENT OF VERB. 149 

Special Rule IV.— A verb having two subjects of different persons, 
one affirmative and the other negative, agrees in person and in number 
with the affirmative subject. Thus— 

1. He, and not I, is chosen. 

2. I, and not they, am to go. 

Special Rule V. — A collective noun (in which the idea of unity is 
prominent) takes a verb in the singular : as, " The army was victorious." 

A noun of multitude (in which the idea of plurality is prominent) 
takes a verb in the plural: as, "The public are often deceived by false 
appearances. " 

For the definition of collective noun and noun of multitude, see 
page 9.* 

Ex. — The fleet are under orders to set sail. 
Incorrect : the collective noun " fleet " requires a verb in the singu- 
lar ; but " are n is in the plural. Hence it should be, " The fleet is 
under orders," etc. 

Ex. — The peasantry goes barefoot. 

Incorrect : " peasantry," a noun of multitude, requires a verb in the 
plural; but "goes" is in the singular. Hence it should be, " The 
peasantry go^ etc. 

Special Rule VI. —A plural title applied to a single object takes a 
verb in the singular. Thus— 

1. Johnson's "Lives of the Poets" is an admirable work. 

2. The United States occupies the largest part of North America. t 

Special Rule VII.— When in any sentence there is an ellipsis of a 
noun, and more than one is implied, the verb is made plural. Thus— 

1. The Second and the Third Epistle of John contain each a single 
chapter. 



* In regard to collective nouns and nouns of multitude, usage, which gives 
law to language, is quite at fault, the best writero being both at variance with 
one another and inconsistent with themselves. 

t In the case of the term "United States," the present tendency is to follow 
Special Rule VI., though it may be observed that in the Constitution the name 
is represented by a plural pronoun them (Art. III., § 3); their, XIII. Amend- 
ment, § 1. 



150 SYNTAX. 

2. A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man are to take 
part in the meeting. (That is, a literary man, a scientific man, 
etc.) 

In such cases the implied noun is to be supplied, and the verb 
is to be parsed as agreeing in the plural with the several subjects con- 
nected by and. 

Special Rule VIII.— Every finite verb must have a subject expressed 
or understood, 

An allowable ellipsis of the subject occurs when two or more 
verbs are connected in the same construction, the subject being 
expressed with the first and understood with the others: as, 
" James reads and [James] writes." But when the subject is 
not implied, or when the verbs are not connected in the same 
construction, each verb should have its own subject. Thus — 

It is thinking makes what we read ours. 

Incorrect: the finite verb "makes" is without a subject, either ex- 
pressed or readily understood. The relative that should be supplied 



NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 



I. None — any — all> etc. — The indefinite pronouns none, any, all, such, 
etc., take verbs in the singular or plural, according as unity or plurality 
of idea is intended. Thus — 

None [=no one] but the brave deserves the fair. 
None of my friends were at home=a^ were not-at-home. 
All [= everything] is peaceful and still. 

All [persons] fear, none [=no persons] aid you, and few [persons] under- 
stand. 

II. Subject + verb + predicate nominative. — When the verb to be 
stands between a subject nominative and a predicate nominative, as 
in the sentence, " The wages of sin is death," doubt may arise as to 
which determines the number of the verb, since the order of the sen- 
tence is sometimes inverted. The principle is, to decide which is the 
real subject, and make the verb agree with that, construing the other 
nominative noun as the predicate nominative, even though it holds 






RULE IL— AGREEMENT OF VERB. 151 

the place in the order of words usually held by the subject. Thus in 
the sentence cited above the natural subject is " death," and the verb 
is in the singular; "wages" is the predicate nominative. 

III. Divided Subjects. — When a verb separates its subjects, the verb 
may agree in number with the first, while it is understood with the 
rest. Thus — 

The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof. 
This is in seeming violation of Special Rule I. ; but the idiom of our 
language allows it. In parsing, supply the verb where it is understood. 

IV. Poetic License. — In poetry there are frequent departures from 

the principle (see Caution 3) that an ellipsis of a verb must not occur 

where the verb, if supplied, would not agree with its subject. Thus — 

Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, 

And [there were] gathering tears and [there were] tremblings of distress, 

And [there were] cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago 

Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness. — Byron. 

In parsing such sentences supply in its correct form the verb un- 
derstood. Though this construction is permitted by poetic license, 

it is not allowable in ordinary prose. 
( 

V. Double Subject. — In prose it is improper to use both a noun and 

its representative personal pronoun as subject of the same verb, unless 
they are in apposition. But in poetry this irregularity is common. 
Thus— 

1. The Count, he was left to the vulture and hound. 

2. For the deck, it was their field of fame. 



EXERCISE 29. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of Eule II. 

General Rule. 

1. What have become of our friends? 

2. The Normans, under which general term is comprehended the Dance, 

Norwegians, and Swedes, were accustomed to rapine and pillage. 

3. I came to see you because I knew you was my old master. 

4. Our cousin's kind and even temper endear her to all. 

5. What signifies fair words without good deeds ? 

6. Neither of the parties are much better. 

7. There was no data given. 



152 SYNTAX. 

Cautions 1-3. 

1. The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

2. To these belong the power of licensing places for the sale of spirits. 

3. Six months' interest are due. 

4. The condition of the crops show that the country has suffered much. 

5. The trend of the Rocky Mountains are toward the south. 

6. Bless them that curses you. 

7. It is an ill wind that blow nobody good. 

8. The strata that contains coal belong to the tertiary era. 

9. In Alaska the winters are long and the cold intense. 

Special Rules I.-III. 

1. The fragrant woodbine and the sweet-scented myrtle renders the air in 

this spot truly delicious. 

2. My trusty counsellor and friend have warned me to have no dealings 

with such men. 
8. How pale each worshipful and reverend guest 
Rise from a clergy or a city feast ! 

4. Every house-top and every steeple show the flag of the republic. 

5. To read and write were once an honorary distinction. 

6. Our will, and not our stars, make us what we are. 

7. Bread and milk are excellent food for children. 

8. A word or an epithet paint a whole scene. 

9. Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 

10. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 

11. No voice nor sound but their own echoes were heard in reply. 

12. Nor eye nor listening ear an object find. 

13. I, whom nor avarice nor pleasure move. 

14. He or I is to go. 

15. I, or thou, or he, are the author of it. 

Special Rules IV.-VIII. 

1. Not you, but Mary, are the best scholar. 

2. The club meet on Tuesday. 

3. Congress have adjourned. 

4. A herd of cattle peacefully grazing afford a pleasing sight. 

5. The assembly thus convened were numerous. 

6. Mankind was^not united by the bonds of civil society. 

7. Campbell's Pleasures of Hope were sold for fifty cents. 

8. Silver threads among the Gold are a hackneyed song. 

9. The rising and the falling inflection is to be carefully distinguished. 

10. A Webster's and a Worcester's dictionary was consulted. 

11. It is a long road has no turning. 

12. Our friend brought two loads to market, and were sold at good price. 

13. This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and was 

formerly very prevalent. 






RULE IIL— ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 153 



III. ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION. 

I. ADJECTIVE AND PAETIOIPLE. 

Rule IIL— Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pro- 
nouns. 

I. The word " modifies " as here used is synonymous with relates, 
limits, belongs to — terms employed by different grammarians to 
denote that the adjective and the participle are adjunct icords. 

II. Adjectives used as complements of incomplete verbs have a 
double office— that of complements and that of modifiers. 



EXERCISE 30. 

In the following sentences apply Eule III.* 

1. Outflew 
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs 
Of mighty cherubim. — Milton. 

2. With a slow and noiseless footstep 
Comes that messenger divine.— Longfellow. 

3. The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade 

For talking age and whispering lovers made. — Goldsmith. 

4. The younger guest purloined the glittering prize.— Parnell. 
5 The service past, around the pious man, 

With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran.— Goldsmith. 

6. The wretch, concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 

To the vile dust, from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. — Scott. 

7. The patient face that once had lain upon the bed was glorified and radi- 

ant; but his heart found out his sister among all the host. — Dickens. 

8. First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, 

Washington was second to none in the humble and endearing scenes 
of private life.— Henry Lee. 



* Model : " The adjectives/faming modifies the noun swords; the participle 
drawn modifies the noun swords; the adjective the limits the noun thighs; the 
adjective mighty modifies the noun cherubim, according to Rule III. n 

G2 



154 SYNTAX. 

9. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 

When fond recollection presents them to view l—Woodworth. 
10. This day I was gratified with what I had often desired to witness — the 
condition of the sea in a tempest. I had contemplated the ocean in 
all its other phases, and they are almost innumerable. At one time it 
is seen reposing in perfect stillness under the blue sky and bright sun. 
At another, slightly ruffled, and then its motion causes his rays to 
tremble and dance in broken fragments of silvery or golden light — 
and the sight is dazzled by following the track from whence his beams 
are reflected—while all besides seems to frown in the darkness of its 
ripple. — Archbishop Hughes. 



APPLIED SYNTAX OF RTJLE III. 

TTote. — Adjectives in the English language, being destitute of 
inflections for gender, number, and case, do not admit of those formal 
concords with the noun which Latin and Greek, German and French 
adjectives exhibit. For this reason a violation of Rule III. is scarcely 
possible. Still some adjectives imply the relation of number, and 
others present peculiarities of construction ; and these properly form 
the subject of several special rules. 

Special Rules under Rule III. 

1. Pronominal Adjectives, 

Special Rule I.— Adjectives that imply unity or plurality must agree 
with their nouns in number: as, " That sort, those sorts;" " This hand, 
these hands." 

I. Indefinite adjectives denoting quantity are used before nouns in 
the singular ; those of number, if implying more than one, must 
be used before plurals : thus — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

much many 

little few 

less fewer 

least fewest 

II. The indefinite adjectives all, some, no, any, other agree with, 
nouns in either number. 



RULE III.— ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 155 

Special Rule II. —The adjectives EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER 
are used with nouns in the singular Only: as, "each man;" "every day;" 
"either side;" "neither bank." 

Either and neither denote one of two objects only ; when more are 
referred to, any or any one and none or no one should be used. 
Thus, " any [or any one] of the three," not " either of the three." 
" None [or no one] of the four," not " neither of the four." 

Obs.— Either should never be used for both or for each. Such expressions 
as "On either side is level fen," when the writer means on each side or on 
both sides, have no justification except that of very loose usage. 

2. The Articles, 

Special Rule III.— When two or more adjectives relate to a noun de- 
noting one and the same object, the article is used before the first only; 
but if two or more objects are intended, the article must be repeated. 

Thus, in the expression, " a tall, old, fat man," reference is made 
to only one man; but "a tall, an old, and a fat man" denotes 
three men. 

Ex. — It is difficult in some cases to distinguish between an inter- 
rogative and exclamatory sentence. 

Incorrect : two kinds of " sentence " are intended ; hence the article 
should be used before each noun ; that is, we should say, " between 
an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence." 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of 
emphasis : as, "He returned a sadder and a wiser man." In such ex- 
ceptional cases the context will prevent ambiguity. 

Ex. — There is a difference between a liberal and a prodigal hand. 

This is an example which may be brought under the latter part 
of Special Rule III. One hand, which is " liberal," is contrasted with 
another, which is " prodigal ;" hence two objects are thought of, and 
the article is used with both adjectives. 

Ex. — There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, re- 
plying manner. 

This sentence is correct. It is here not necessary to repeat the a, 
because it is one manner that is spoken of— a manner " vehement," 
" contentious," and " replying." 



156 SYNTAX. 

Special Rule IV.— When two or more nouns describe one person, the 
article is used before the first only. 

"A priest and king" implies that both offices are vested in one 
individual; "a priest and a king" implies that each office is 
held by a separate person. 

So, also, when two or more appositives are joined to a noun, the 
article precedes the first only : thus, " Johnson, the bookseller 
and stationer "z=.one " Johnson," who was both " bookseller and 
stationer." 

Special Rule v.— When two nouns used as terms of a comparison 
refer to the same person or thing, the article is omitted with the latter 
noun; but when they refer to different persons or things, the article must 
be used with each noun. 

1. He would make a better statesman than lawyer. 

2. He would make a better statesman than a lawyer. 

In 1, "lawyer" and "statesman" refer to the same person= u He 
would make a better statesman than [he would make a] law- 
yer." In 2, " lawyer " and " statesman " refer to different per- 
sonsr= u He would make a better statesman than a lawyer [would 
make]." 

Special Rule VI.— The indefinite article should be repeated before 
each of several nouns when the same form of it would not agree with all. 

Thus we can say, " a man, woman, and child ;" but we must not 
say, " a cow, ox, and pig," because on supplying the expressed 
article " a," it is not in the form required by " ox." 

3. Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 

Special Rule VII.— The comparative degree is used when two ob- 
jects or classes of objects are compared ; the superlative, when more 

than two are compared: as, "Iron is harder than wood." "Could make 
the worse appear the better reason." "Oh! bloodiest picture in the book 
of time." 

Special Rule VIII.— When the comparative degree is used, the latter 
term of comparison should always exclude the former; but when the su- 
perlative is used, the latter term should always include the former ; as, 



RULE III.— ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 157 

"Russia is larger than any other country in Europe." *' Russia is the largest 
country [of all countries] in Europe." 

The following sentences exemplify violations of Special Rule VIII. 

1. Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. 

As Bismarck is a German statesman, the sentence affirms that he is 
greater than himself. It should read : " Bismarck is greater than any 
other German statesman" or "than all other German statesmen." The 
phrase than any other satisfies the rule by excluding Bismarck from the 
class with which he is compared. We can properly say, " Bismarck is 
greater than any Chinese statesman" because Bismarck does not belong 
to the class Chinese statesmen. 

2. Shakspeare is the most admired of all the other English poets. 
In order to satisfy the rule that, when the superlative is used, the 

latter term of comparison must include the former, the word "other" 
must be expunged. Thus: "the most admired of all the English 
poets." 

Special Rule IX.— Double forms of the same word in the comparative 
or superlative degree must not be used: thus, ''the strictest sect"— not 

"the most strictest sect :" " the worse result " — not " the worser result." 

4. Adjectives for Adverbs, 

Special Rule X. —An adjective must not be used where the con- 
struction requires an adverb, 

I. The construction requires an adverb when manner is to be ex- 
pressed. 

1. He arose slow from the ground, and resumed his journey. 
Incorrect : the intent is to denote the manner of rising ; hence the 

adverb slowly should be employed. 

2. It is easier said than done. 

This should be, " more easily said," etc. 

II. The caution expressed in Special Rule X. must not be under- 
stood as applying to an adjective used as the complement of an in- 
transitive or a passive verb, and modifying the subject ; as, " Apples 
taste sweet," (See Special Rule II., page 177.) 



158 SYNTAX. 

III. An error analogous to that censured in Special Rule X. ifl ex- 
emplified in the use of like for the conjunction as: thus— 

Victory must end in possession, like toil in sleep.— Gladstone. 

This should be, " Victory must end in possession, as [does] toil in 
sleep." 

NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. Not articles. — In some cases what appears to be an article is not 
really such. Thus a in the phrase " twice a week " was originally a 
weakened form of the preposition on (compare aboard=07i board). In 
this construction, the proper parsing is to call " a week " an adverbial 
phrase. 

The word the in such constructions as "the more the merrier" is 
not, strictly speaking, an article. (For its real nature, see page 88.) 

II. u Many a," etc. — The indefinite article usually precedes an 

adjective relating to a noun ; but the idiom of our language permits a 

departure from this usage with the adjectives many, what, or such: as — 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
What a piece of work is man. 
Such a Roman. 

It is proper to parse many a as a complex adjective, used idio- 
matically. 

III. "A hundred," etc. — The words hundred, thousand, pair, dozen, 
etc., may be used with the indefinite article, for the reason that these 
words are originally nouns : thus, " a hundred sheep." This construc- 
tion is idiomatic : in Anglo-Saxon, hundred, thousand, etc., were followed 
by a noun in the genitive case, as though we said " a hundred of sheep." 
(It may be noted that we still say, " a pair of stockings," " a score of 
men," though, also, " a dozen men.") In parsing, it is proper to con- 
sider " a hundred " as forming a complex adjective. 

IV. " First two," etc. — When two numerals relate to one noun, 
the ordinal generally precedes the cardinal : as, " the first two chapters 
of Matthew," " the last three stanzas of the hymn." (It is plain that, 
strictly speaking, there cannot be two first chapters, or three last 



RULE III.— ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 159 

stanzas.) However, the terms " two first," " three last," and the like, 
might occur in another construction, and with a different meaning — 
namely, as the first of each of two series, or the last of each of three series, 

etc. 

For instance, if there were two classes in a school, the boys at the head 
of each might be styled the "two first; 1 ' or, if there were three 
classes, the boys at the foot of each might be termed the "three last." 

V. Double Comparatives, etc. — Some of our older writers, when 
they wished to be emphatic, employed double comparatives or super- 
latives: thus — 



The unkindest beast more kinder than mankind. — Shakspeare. 
This was the most unkindest cut of all. — Ibid. 

Such constructions were once good English, but are contrary to 
modern usage.* 



EXERCISE 31. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule 
III. 

Special Rules L, II. 

1. These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals. 

2. These sort of peaches are very numerous. 

3. They could not speak ; and so I left them both, 
To bear this tidings to the bloody king. 

4. Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army. 

5. Not less than twenty dictionaries of the English language have been 

published. 

6. Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. 

7. John, James, and Henry are faithful boys, and either lad will carry the 

message. 

Special Boles III.-VII. 

1. The governor and the commander-in-chief [one person] has arrived. 

2. The governor and commander-in-chief [two persons] have arrived. 

3. The rich and poor have a common interest. 

4. The man wore a large, a dark, and a faded cloak. 

* "And this [i. e., a double superlative] is a certaine kind of English At- 
ticisme, or eloquent phrase of speech, imitating the manner of the most an- 
cientest and finest Grecians, who for more emphasis and vehemencies 6ake used 
to speake thus."— Ben Jonson. 



160 SYNTAX. 

5. A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the tower. 

6. A hot and cold spring were found in the same neighborhood. 

7. The first and second book are difficult. 

8. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the cars. 

Special Rules VIII.-X. 

1. Both of these opinions have the sanction of the highest authority, and 

it may be well to examine which of them is the wisest. 

2. Shakspeare is more admired than any English poet. 

3. When reason doubtful, like the Samian letter, points him two ways, the 

narrowest is the best. 

4. Of all other figures of speech, irony should be the most carefully em- 

ployed. 

5. This kind of wit is that which abounds in Cowley, more than in any 

author that ever wrote. 

6. A fondness for show is, of all other follies, the most vain. 

7. A more worthier man you cannot find. 

8. The poor girl still coughs considerable. 

9. Chatterton died miserable poor. 

10. The French did not feel the war like we did. 



2. NOUNS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule IV.— A noun modifying another noun signifying a dif- 
ferent thing is in the pOSSeSSive Case: as, "man's life;" "the boy's 
books." 

The noun to which the noun in the possessive case stands in the 
attributive relation may be called the principal term. 



EXERCISE 32. 

In the following sentences apply Kule IV.* 

1. Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, 
Weighs the men's wit against the lady's hair. 

2. Little-minded people's thoughts move in such small circles that five 

minutes' conversation gives you an arc long enough to determine their 
whole curve. — 0. W. Holmes. 

* Model: "The noun men's in the possessive case modifies the noun wit, 
according to Rule IV. ; the noun lady's in the possessive case modifies the 
aoun hair, according to Rule IV." 



RULE IV.— NOUNS IN TEE POSSESSIVE CASE. \Q± 

3. I inhaled the violet's breath.— Emerson. 

4. Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night's Plutonian shore. — Poe. 

5. The spider's thread is cable to man's tie on earthly bliss. — Young, 

6. Richer by far is the heart's adoration. — Eeber. 

7. 'Twas made of the white snail's pearly shell. — Brake. 

8. Quench the timber's falling embers, 
Quench the red leaves in December's 

Hoary rime and chilling spray. — ^Yhittier. 

9. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's [ends], thy God's, and 

truth' s. — Sh a kspea re. 
10. O, well for the fishermau's boy, 

That he shouts with his sister at play. — Tennyson, 



AJPFX^IED SYNTAX OIT RXJL.E IV. 

Special Rules under Rule IV. 

Special Rule I.— The principal term, when sufficiently obvious, is 

often omitted: as, "Ball and Black's [store];" "the Court of St. James's 
[palace];" "from Stiles's pocket into Nokes's [pocket]." 

Special Rule II. — When joint ownership or possession is attributed 
to two or more persons, the name of only the last mentioned takes the sign 
of the possessive: as, "Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon." 

In such cases the nouns may be parsed as co-ordinate terms in 
the possessive case, but having the possessive sign affixed to 
the last only. 

Special Rule III.— When separate ownership is attributed to two or 
more persons, the name of each should be in the possessive case : as, " Web- 

sters and Worcester's dictionaries." 

In such cases the principal term after each possessive noun may 
be supplied in parsing. 

Special Rule IV.— When ownership is attributed to a single person 
described by two or more nouns in apposition, the noun immediately pre- 
ceding the principal term, expressed or understood, alone takes the posses- 
sive sign: as, "At Smith, the bookseller s [store] ;" "for my servant Davids 
sake." 

In such instances the two or more nouns are each to be parsed 
as in the possessive case according to the rule of apposition. 
(See Rule V.) 



162 SYNTAX. 

Special Rule v.— In a complex term the last word takes the posses- 
sive signs as, "My father-in-Zaw/s house;" "The bard of Lomond's lay;" 
"Henry the Eighth's reign." 

In parsing, a complex noun is to be taken as a whole. 

Special Rule VI.— A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case may 
relate to a gerund: as, "This will be the effect of the pupil's composing 
frequently ;" "This will be the effect of his composing frequently." 

L While the gerund in its noun-character may thus take a pos- 
sessive noun or pronoun as an attributive, it may in its verb- 
character receive a complement or an adjunct. Hence result 
such constructions as — 

lc Disease and death were consequences of the man's neglecting 

treatment. 
2. This is the result of his being diligent in his youth. 

In these forms of expression there is nothing anomalous: the 
peculiarities of construction result naturally from the nature of 
the gerund. 

IL It follows that the general rule is violated when in this con- 
struction an attributive noun or pronoun is not put in the pos- 
sessive case : thus, " There is no doubt of the till passing the 
House," should be, " There is no doubt of the bill's passing the 
House." 



EXERCISE 33. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of Kule 
TV. 

Special Rules H.-VI. 

1. The bridge is opposite Brown's Brothers*. 

2. Was Cain's and Abel's father there? 

3. We have men and boy's clothing. 

4. There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus' s diameter. 

5. Nothing shall die of all that is the children's of Israel. 

6. Call at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer's. 

7. We read of Jack's the Giant-killer wonderful exploits. 

8. Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker's wise and good. 

9. We heard of your honor coming to town. 

10o Day and night are a consequence of the earth revolving on its axis. 



JtULE V.—APPOSITIVES. 1Q% 

3. APPOSITIVES. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun 
or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case •. as— 

1. Thomson, the poet, was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. 

2. Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. 

I. The case of the principal term depends on its grammatical re- 
lation in the sentence : this must first be determined by the ap- 
propriate rule of syntax, before the case of the appositive can 
be known. 

II. A phrase or a proposition may be in apposition with a noun : 
thus — 

1. O let us still the secret joy partake 

To follow virtue e'en for virtue's sake. — Pope. 

2. In the serene expression of her face he read the divine beatitude, 

u Blessed are the pure in heart." — Longfellow. 



EXERCISE 34. 

In the following sentence apply Rule V.* 

1. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane.— Shakspeare. 

2. At midnight, in the forest shades, 
Bozzaris ranged his Suliote hand, 
True as the steel of their tried blades, 
Heroes in heart and hand. — Halleck. 

3. This is my son, mine own Telemachus. — Tennyson. 

4. There, swinging wide at her moorings, lay 
The Somerset, British man-of-war— 

A phantom ship. — Longfellow. 

5. So work the honey-bees, * 
Creatures that by a rule in nature teach 

The art of order to a peopled kingdom.— Shakspeare. 

6. That best portion of a good man's life — 
His little, nameless, unremembered acts 
Of kindness and of love. — Wordsworth. 

' 7. It is seldom that the father and the son, he who has borne the weight, 
and he who has been brought up in the lustre of the diadem, exhibit 
equal capacity for the administration of affairs. — Gibbon. 

* Model: "The noun Hamlet, explaining the pronoun /, is in the nomina- 
tive case ; the noun Bane., explaining Hamlet, is in the nominative case, accord- 
ing to Rule V. n 



164 SYNTAX. 



NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. Each Other. — In the sentences, " They loved each other," 
"They hated one another," the words "each" and "other," and 
" one " and " another," though reciprocally related, are not in the same 
construction. The sentences are contracted forms of " They loved, 
each [loved] other" and " They hated one [hated] another." " Each " is 
in the nominative case, in apposition to "they," while "other" is in 
the objective case, governed by the verb " loved." " One " is in appo- 
sition to "they," and "another" is object of "hated." 

This construction is an instance of the action of the law of brevity. 
On the same principle we may explain " They heard each other's voice" 
=They heard, each (heard) other's voice.* 

II. Appositive with u as." — A species of apposition is formed by 
introducing the attributive noun by as. Thus — 

Cicero as an orator was bold — as a soldier, he was timid. 

That is, Cicero, considered as an orator, etc. This construction is 
always elliptical ; in parsing, either the ellipsis may be supplied, or it 
may be stated that the appositive is introduced by as, and that the 
construction is idiomatic. 

III. Appositive to a Pronoun. — A puzzling instance of apposition 
is exemplified in the following construction : 

Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
The promised father of the future age. — Pope. 

It is customary to construe the noun "father" as in the possessive 
case, in apposition with "his." But it is better to treat "his" as 
equivalent to of him. "Father" is, then, in the objective case, in 
apposition with him (=the guardian care of him, the father, etc). 

The same explanation, taken in connection with what is said in 
Note II. in regard to the appositive introduced by as, will explain 

*""Such phrases as to each other, from one another, are corruptions made 
upon a false analogy, though they are now thoroughly fixed in the language." 
—Mason: English Grammar, The Old-English constructions were each to 
other, one from another. 



RULE V.—APPOSITIVES. 165 

constructions like the following . " The generals popularity as a com- 
mander increases daily "r=The popularity of the general [objective] as 
a commander [objective] increases daily. 

IV. Pronouns used Adjectively. — The use of a pronoun as princi- 
pal term to a noun appositive is to be distinguished from a pronoun 
used in the manner of an adjective. The former is illustrated by such 
constructions as the following — 

But he, our gracious Jfaster, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust. 

This comes under the regular rule of apposition, and differs from the 

following : 

1. And you, ye waters,* roll. 

2. We poet* in our youth begin in gladness. 

Constructions like these last are usually treated as instances of apposi- 
tion ; but it would perhaps be more logical to consider a pronoun 
thus employed as used adjectively, just as a noun may be used ad- 
jectively. 

V. Appositive to a Statement. — Sometimes the idea expressed by 
an entire sentence is repeated pleonastically by means of a noun : thus, 
11 He rashly ventured to ascend the mountain without a guide, an act 
which cost him his life;" that is, his rashly venturing, etc., was an act, 
etc. 

EXERCISE 35. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of 
Rule V. 

1. The insult was offered to my friend, he whom I loved as a brother. 

2. We kept silent, her and me. 

3 Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 

4. The dress was made by Worth, the milliner, he that we saw in Paris. 

5 Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 

Him whom sea-severed realms obey, and him 

Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 

Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 

Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

* Observe that while "ye" is used adjectively, there is a real instance of 
apposition between " waters" and "you." 



IQQ SYNTAX. 



IV. COMPLEMENTARY RELATION. 

1. COMPLEMENT OF TEANSITIVE VEEBS. 

Rule VI— The object of a transitive verb is in the objective 
case. 

I. The object, or complement (usually called the direct object), of a 
transitive verb may be : 

1. A noun : as, " Love your enemies." 

2. A pronoun : as, " Follow me" 

3. An infinitive or a phrase : as — 

1. Learn to labor and to wait (simple infinitives as objects). 

2. Now leave complaining, and begin your tea (gerund as object). 

3. Ladies, you deserve to have a temple built you (infinitive phrase as 

object). 

4. A proposition : as, "I perceived that we brought good-humor with 

usy 

Note. — A phrase or a clause used as the object of a verb is parsed as in the 
singular number and objective case. It should be understood that, with a few 
idiomatic exceptions, Rule VI. can apply only to transitive verbs in the active 
voice. 

II. Verbals. — The object may be the complement not only of a 
finite verb, but of its verbals— namely, the infinitives and the participles : 
thus — 

1. To put [inf.] on your harness is different from putting [ger- 
und] it off. 

2. The thief, seeing [participle] the officer, ran away. Having 
explored [part.] the islands, Columbus returned to Spain. 

III. Arrangement. — In the regular order the object follows the 
verb: thus— 

And each separate dying ember 
Wrought its ghost upon the floor,— Poe. 



RULE VL— COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. 167 

But for rhetorical effect the object may precede the verb :* thus— 

Honey from out the gnarled hive I'll bring, 

And apples wan with sweetness gather thee.— Keats. 



EXERCISE 36. 

In the following sentences apply Eule VI. f 

1. The Muses haunt clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill. 

2. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot.— Wolfe 

3. When the enamoured sunny light 
Brightens her that was so bright. — Wordsworth. 

4. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. — Gray. 

5. Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive.— Pope. 

6. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. — Scott. 

7. Me he restored, and him he hanged. — Bible. 

8. Knowledge in general expands the mind, exalts the faculties, refines the 

taste of pleasure, and opens innumerable sources of intellectual en- 
joyment. — Robert Hall. 
9 For my own part I have ever believed, and do now know, that there are 
witches. — Sir T. Browne. 

10. They lost no more time in asking questions. — Dickens 

11. They follow an adventurer whom they fear, and obey a power which 

they hate ; we serve a monarch whom we love— a God whom we adore. 
— Sheridan. 

12. Let me live a life J of faith, 

Let me die thy people's death. J— Newton. 

13. He gathered new and greater armies from his own land — from subju- 

gated lands. He called forth the young and brave — one from every 
household — from the Pyrenees to the Zuyder Zee — from Jura to the 
ocean. He marshalled them into long and majestic columns, and 
went forth to seize that universal dominion which seemed almost 
within his grasp. — Chanmng. 

* It sometimes happens, especially in poetry, that ambiguity is produced 
by these transpositions. Thus in the well-known line from Gray's Elegy— 

"And all the air a solemn stillness holds" — 
it is impossible to ascertain from the mere form of construction whether 
the "air" holds the "stillness," or the "stillness" holds the "air." We 
may, however, infer that " stillness " is the object ; and, in fact, in this inverted 
order the object generally comes next to the verb. 

t Model : " The nouns spring, grove, and hill, objects of the transitive verb 
haunt, are in the objective case, according to Rule VI." 

\ Cognate objectives 



168 SYNTAX. 

APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE VI. 

Violations of Rule VI. 

I. As regards nouns, Rule VI. cannot be violated, since nouns have 
no inflection for the objective case. 

II. As regards pronouns, the rule is seldom violated when the 
pronoun object immediately follows the verb ; but there is lia- 
bility to error when the construction is inverted or elliptical : 
thus — 

1. They that honor me I will honor. 

Incorrect : " they" is the object of the verb " will honor," and should 
therefore be in the objective case — " Them that honor," etc. 

2. Let the able-bodied fight, and they that are feeble do guard duty 

at home. 

Incorrect ; " they " is designed as the object of the verb " let " un- 
derstood, and should therefore be them (or those). Hence — 

Caution. — When a pronoun object is at a distance from its gov- 
erning verb, care must be taken to use the objective form of the pro- 
noun. 



Special Rules under Rule VI. 

Special Rule I.— Some transitive verbs, as allow, bring, buy, etc., 
may be followed by two objects— a direct and an indirect object: thus— 

1. Send us [indirect] a message [direct], 

2. Tell him [indirect] to write [direct], 

I. The principal verbs taking this construction are : 



allow 


do 


make 


pour 


send 


bring 


draw 


offer 


present 


show 


buy 


get 


order 


promise 


sing 


carry 


give 


pass 


provide 


tell 


cost 


leave 


pay 


refuse 


throw 


deny 


lend 


play 


sell 


write 



II. The indirect (or personal) object always precedes the direct. 
It is to be parsed as " in the objective case, indirect object of" 
— the verb. 



RULE VL— COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. 169 

Special Rule II.— The passive forms of tie verbs allow, bring, buy, 
etc,, sometimes admit a direct object: thus— 

1. We were promise d an office. 

2. He was refused support. 

Note.— Verbs in the passive voice almost always require a complement in 
the nominative case (see Rule VII.) ; and Special Rule II. is designed to provide 
for the very peculiar use of an object after certain passive verbs. These verbs 
(the passives of those enumerated under Special Rule I.), which in the active 
voice take both a direct (or personal) and an indirect object, change the per- 
sonal object into the subject in the passive construction, and retain the objec- 
tive complement. For explanation, see "Idiomatic Forms," page 171. 

Special Rule III.— Verbs signifying to MAKE, CREATE, ELECT, AP- 
POINT, name, call, and some others of like meaning, take a double object 
—a direct object and an attributive complement in the objective case; 
thus — 

1. The people elected Washington 'president. 

2. His parents named Mm John. 

3. They made Hollo captain. 

I. In this construction the object made, named, elected, etc., is the 
direct object. The object denoting icliat the person was made, 
named, elected, etc., is sometimes called the factitive object ;* but 
the term attributive object or complement is preferable. The 
direct object always precedes the attributive object. 

Note. — This construction is often treated as a case of appositional use — 
the attributive object being construed as an appositive. But this is incorrect. 
The attributive object has a very peculiar connection with the verb; and, with 
respect to meaning, it is the action of the verb as modified by the attributive 
complement that passes over to the direct .object. Thus it is the action of 
making captain that passes over to "Rollo," of naming John that passes over 
to "him," and of electing president that passes over to " Washington. 1 ' 

II. The attributive complement may be an infinitive : as, " They 
made him (to) labor." 

III. In the passive construction the direct object becomes the sub- 
ject, and the attributive object is converted into the predicate 
nominative (see Rule VII.) . 



* "Factitive," from Latin facere, factum, to make ; because the verb to make 
stands as the type of this class of verbs. 

H 



170 SYNTAX. 

Special Rule IV.— Some transitive verbs take an adjective comple- 
ment modifying their objects as— 

1. Virtue renders life happy. 

2. This struck me dumb. 

Note.— It is customary to treat such an adjective as "happy" (see sentence 
1 above) as a mere modifier (or attributive) of "life," ignoring wholly its use 
as a complement. In this view it is impossible to discriminate in analysis be- 
tween " We call the man rich " and " We call the rich man." 

Special Rule v.— An infinitive, a gerund, or a participle may take 
an adjective as its complement: thus— 

1. To be virtuous is to be happy. 

2. He deceived people by seeming poor. 

3. Feeling cold, he put on his coat. 



NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. " Ask" and " Teach." — The verbs ask and teach take two comple- 
ments, both of which are direct objects ; but these complements are of a 
different nature from the complements of the kind of verbs considered 
under Special Rule I. (page 168). Verbs. of the latter sort, as allow, 
firing, buy, etc.', take a direct and an indirect object. But when we say, 
" The teacher asked John a question,' 1 '' " Murray taught the boy gram- 
mar" " John" and "question," "boy" and "grammar" form each a 
double objective complement (both being direct objects), apparently 
as though ask and teach expressed at the same time two distinct 
meanings. And in Latin the verbs ask and teach govern two accusa- 
tives. 

When the passive construction is used, the noun denoting what is 
asked or taught remains in the objective case, the direct object of the 
verb : thus, "John was asked a question ;" "The boy was taught gram- 
mar.' 1 '' (In Latin, this object retains its accusative form.) The con- 
struction is idiomatic, and should be treated as an exceptional in- 
stance of a passive verb having the power of governing a noun iii 
the objective case. 



RULE VL— COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. 171 

II. Objective after Passive. — The use of an objective-case comple- 
ment after the passive forms of the verbs referred to in Special Rule II. 
(page 169) may receive some illustration from what has been said re- 
specting the verbs ask and teach. Take the examples — 

1. The conqueror offered them [indirect object] their lives [direct object]. 

2. The porter refused them [indirect object] admittance [direct object]. 

Transforming these into the passive construction, we may say — 

1. Their lives were offered them [indirect object] by the conqueror. 

2. Admittance was refused them [indirect object] by the porter. 

But there is nothing unusual in these forms, for " them" is in both 
instances an indirect object (dative), which any passive verb may take. 
But we may also turn the sentences thus — 

1. They were offered their lives [direct object] by the conqueror. 

2. They were refused admittance [direct object] by the porter. 

The use of a direct object after the passive forms of the verbs ash and 
teach is a regular, though rare, construction ; but its employment after 
the verbs here referred to is irregular and idiomatic, and is contrary to 
the general analogies of language. 

It is probable that this construction has arisen from the operation 
of the " Law of Extension [or Confusion] of Construction, 1 ' that is, by 
the extension of the construction in ask and teach to verbs of a differ- 
ent nature. From the fact that we may say "He was taught grammar" 
(in which "he" is regularly made the subject of the passive, because 
forming the direct object of the verb in the active voice — "taught him 
grammar"), a transition has insensibly been made to the usage of say- 
ing, " They were refused admittance" which presents the anomaly of 
converting an indirect object into a subject.* 



EXERCISE 37. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of 
Rule VI. 

1. Who did you say you met this morning? 

2. Who should I meet the other day but him. 

* This construction is by many grammarians pronounced wholly improper 
and ungrammatical. But the form in question cannot thus be proscribed, for 
it has the authority of usage, both popular and literary. The office of the 
grammarian is to explain what is, not to legislate as to what should be, 



172 SYNTAX. 

3. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

4. Let you and I advance. 

5. We don't care about your praising we poor fellows. 

6. He wished to know who he should love. 

7. I do not know who to send. 



2. COMPLEMENT OF INTEANSITIVE AND PASSIVE VEEBS. 

Rule VII. —A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an 
intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case : thus— 

I am he; Washington became president; Napoleon was elected 
emperor. 

I. The complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is gener- 
ally called the predicate nominative. 

II. Rule VII. is confined in its application to the limited number 
of intransitive verbs of incomplete predication, since most intran- 
sitive verbs take no complement. The principal intransitive 
verbs of incomplete predication are: be, become, appear, seem, 
stand, walk (and other verbs of position, motion, or condition) ; 
together with the passive forms of the verbs make, create, elect, 
appoint, name, call, and others of like meaning. 



EXERCISE 38. 

In the following sentences apply Eule VII.* 

1. Tell me not in mournful numbers 

Life is but an empty dream. — Longfellow. 

2. The grave is not its goal. — Ibid. 

3. It is I — be not afraid. — Bible. 

4. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land?— Scott. 

5. The proper study of mankind is man. — Pope, 

6. And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. — Shelley. 

7. The better part of valor is discretion. — Shalcspeare. 



* Model: "The noun dream used as the complement of the intransitive 
verb is, is in the nominative case, according to Rule VII. " 



RULE VII.— COMPLEMENT OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 173 

8. The other shape — 

If shape it might be called that shape had none 

Distinguishable in member, joint, or limb ; 

Or substance might be called that shadow seemM, 

For each seem'd either :— black it stood as night.— Milton. 



APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE VII. 

ecial Rules under Rule VII. 

Special Rule I.— The infinitives and the participles of intransitive 
or passive verbs may take as complement a noun or pronoun explan- 
atory of, and in the same case with, a noun or pronoun which precedes 
them. 

1. It was thought to be he. 

" He n is used as the complement of " to be," and is in the nomina- 
tive case, because " it " is in the nominative case. 

2. I believed him to be a scholar. 

" Scholar " is used as the complement of the verb " to be," and is in 
the objective case, because " him " is in the objective case, object of 
" believed." 

3. I cannot help being an admirer of beauty. 

" Admirer " is explanatory of " I," and hence is in the nominative 
case. 

Special Rule II.— An intransitive or a passive verb may take as 
complement a predicate adjective modifying the subject: as— 

The fields are green. 

The nation became powerful. 

Some men are called happy. 

Violations of Rule VII. 

Case 1. — In the use of the pronoun who. 

The pronoun who is placed before the verb to be, representing a 
complement whose natural position would be after the verb: 
thus, "I know who you are" ("I know you are John"). This 
peculiarity of position greatly increases the liability to a viola- 
tion of Rule VII. : thus — 



174 SYNTAX. 

Whom do men say that I am ? 
Substituting another pronoun that would answer to the pronoun 
" whom," we have, 

Do men say that I am he ? 

The construction here plainly requires the predicate nominative: 
Hence — 

Caution 1. — In the employment of the relative and interrogative 
pronoun who as predicate nominative, care must be taken that the 
pronoun is in the nominative form. 

Case 2. — In the use of pronoun complements with the verbals of 
intransitive verbs: thus — 

Who do you suppose it to be ? 

Incorrect : " who" is designed as complement of " to be," indicating 
the same thing as " it." But " it " is in the objective case, as object of 
" suppose ;" so that " who" should be whom, to agree in case with " it." 
Hence — 

It being her, there was nothing more to be said. 

Incorrect : the participle being is preceded by " it," in the nomina- 
tive case — so that " her" should be she. Hence — 

Caution 2. — In the use of a pronoun as complement an intransi- 
tive verbal must agree in case with the noun or pronoun preceding 
the verbal. 

EXERCISE 39. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of Eule 

ra 

1. I would act the same part if I were him. 

2. They believed it to be I. 

3. Whom do you think it is ? 

4. Who do you suppose it to be ? 

5. It is them, you said, deserve most blame. 

6. I little thought it had been him. 

7. Can you tell whom that man is ? 

8. It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. 

9. Let him be whom he might be. 

10. Those are the persons who he thought true to his interests. 



RULE VIII.— ADVERBIAL RELATION. 175 



Y. ADVERBIAL RELATION. 

Rule VIII.— An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb. 

I. The responsives yes and no are used independently : as, " Is he 
at home ?" " Yes " (=He is at home). 

II. Modal adverbs are often used to modify an entire proposition : 
as, "Truly, the world does move." 



EXERCISE 40. 

In the following sentences apply Eule VIII.* 

1. The very fairest flowers usually wither the most quickly. 

2. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. — Wolfe. 

3. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world.— Pope. 

4. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. — Gray. 

5. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody.— Shakspeare. 

6. Freely we serve because we freely love. — Milton. 

7. When here, but three days since I came, 
Bewildered in pursuit of game, 

All seemed as peaceful and as still 

As the mist slumbering on yon hill. — Scott. 



APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE VIII. 

Special Rules under Rule VIII. 

Special Rule I.— Adverbs must be placed in the position that will 
render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 

Adverbs are for the most part placed before adjectives, after a verb 
in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the compound 
form. This rule (which applies to adverbial phrases as well as 
to simple adverbs) is a very general principle, to which there 
are many exceptions. 

Note. — The proper placing of adverbs is a matter of nice taste and of keen 
judgment. The art will best be learned, not by studying rules that are subject 
to numberless exceptions, but by dealing with actual examples. 

* Model : "The adverb very modifies the adjective fairest; the adverbs 
usually and most quickly modify the verb wither, according to Rule VIII." 



176 SYNTAX. 

1. We cannot deprive them of merit wholly. 
The adverb " wholly " is inelegantly placed. It is meant to relate j 

to the verb " deprive," and the intervention of the words " them of 
merit " between the adverb and the verb is confusing. It should be, 
" We cannot wholly deprive them of merit." 

2. I hope not much to tire those I shalknot happen to please.— 

Doctor Johnson. 
Doctor Johnson did not mean to say that he did not much hope 
to tire, but that he hoped not to tire much. The sentence should be 
turned in this manner : " I hope I shall not much tire those whom I 
shall [or may] not happen to please." 

8. This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style. 
— Murray's Grammar. 
Better thus : " This mode of expression suits [a] familiar rather than 
[a] grave style." 

4. A master-mind was equally wanting in the cabinet and in the 

field. 
This should be, " Was wanting equally in the cabinet," etc. In this 
example, as in No. 3, the adverb has a mixed reference. " Equally " 
modifies u wanting," but it has reference also to the phrase "in the 
cabinet and in the field." The principle in such cases is, that the ad- 
verb should be placed between the two words or expressions to which 
it has reference. 

5. I have been disappointed greatly at your conduct. 

The adverb greatly is not correctly placed. The sentence should 
read thus : " I have been greatly disappointed," etc. The principle in 
such cases is, that in compound tenses adverbs should be inserted be- 
tween the auxiliary and the participle. 

6. He used to often come. 

I wished to really know. 
With the simple infinitive, the adverb must never separate the sign 
to from the verb ; it must either precede or it must follow the whole 
infinitive form. Thus, " He used often to come," or " to come often. 11 
" I wished really to know," or " to know really. 11 With the compound 
infinitive the same rule applies as in the compound tenses. We say, 
" It is believed to have often happened ;" " He is thought to be wdl 
informed on that subject." 



RULE VIIL— ADVERBIAL RELATION. 177 

Only. — The most troublesome of English adverbs is " only."* Ac- 
cording as this word is placed in a sentence, it may express several 
very different meanings. 

L " Only he mourned for his brother. " "Only" here expresses an antithet- 
ical relation equivalent to but. He was generally a cold-hearted man, 
only {but, as an exception to his general character) he mourned for 
his brother. 

2. "Ke-ojily [alone] mourned for his brother." No one else mourned for 

him. 

3. "He oft^-mourned for his brother." He did nothing else. 

4. " He mourned only for. his brother." And for no other reason. 

5. " He mourned for his only brother." His sole brother ; only, an adjective. 

6. "He mourned for his brother only." And for no one else ( u only" = 

alone). 

The following are instances of the faulty placing of this adverb : 

1. A term which only implies the idea of persons. 

The force of exclusion possessed by "only" is meant to apply not 
to the word "implies," but to the word " persons." It should be, 
" which implies the idea of persons only" 

2. I can only regard them as Scotticisms. 

The force of exclusion in " only " is meant to apply not to the verb 
" regard," but to the noun " Scotticisms." The sentence should be, 
f 1 can regard them only as Scotticisms." 

3. When the article stands only before the first of two or more connected 

nouns. 

This should be, " When the article stands before only the first," etc. 

Special Rule II.— An adverb should not be misused for a predicate 
adjective : thus— 

1. The rose smells sweet — not sweetly. 

2. Gutturals sound harsh — not harshly. 

3. Mary looks cold — not coldly. 

We say, "Mary holes cold" [=she is cold in look or appearance], 
because we do not wish to mark the manner of looking, but to denote a 
quality of Mary. If we change the intransitive into the transitive con- 
struction by the addition of a preposition, and say, " Mary looks on John 

* "A blunder of which the instances are innumerable is the misplacing of 
the word ' only/ Indeed, this is so common, so absolutely universal, one 
may almost say that ■ only' cannot be found in its proper place in any book 
within the whole range of English literature."— Gould's Good English, p. 100. 

H2 



178 SYNTAX. 

coldly," the use of the adverb is correct, because in this instance we wish 
to denote the manner of her looking on, and not a quality of Mary. 

Special Rule III.— Two negatives should never he used to express a 
negation. 

1. 1 have not done nothing. 

This means I have done something. If a negation is intended, say, 
u I have done nothing" or, "J have not done anything." 

2. He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two da\s. 

The negative in nor (=not or), together with the word no before 
water, makes a double negative. Correct thus: "He has eaten no 
bread and he has drunk no water;" or, "He has neither eaten any 
bread nor has he drunk any water," etc. 

Note.— Double negatives are elegantly used to express an affirmative in 
an indirect way. In place of saying, "I am somewhat acquainted 
with his virtues," the sentence might be turned thus : "I am not un- 
acquainted with his virtues." 

Special Rule IV.— A noun denoting measure of time, distance, 
value, etc., may bemused as an objective adverbial without a preposi- 
tion: thus — 

1. The man is seventy years old. 

2. Our school is three miles from the church. 

3. You are paid twenty dollars a week. 



EXERCISE 41. 

In the following sentences correct the errors in the use 
of adverbs. 

1. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

2. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. 

3. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

4. The colon may be properly applied in the following case. 

5. By greatness I not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the 

largeness of the whole view. 

6. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature, but for his 

moral wisdom. 

7. The apple tastes sweetly. 

8. The dog smells disagreeably. 

9. Velvet feels smoothly. 

10. I have not had no dinner. 

11. I will not take that course by no means. 

12. He spoke the piece clear and distinct. 



RULE IX.— PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 179 



VI. REPRESENTATIVE RELATION. 
PKONOUN AND ANTECEDENT, 

Rule IX. —A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and number 
with its antecedent or the word that it represents : thus— 

To him iclio in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. 

I. Relatives agree with their antecedents; personal and other pro- 
nouns, with the icord (noun or its equivalent) represented. 

II. Pronouns agree in person, gender, and number with their ante- 
cedents or represented words ; but the case of a pronoun is deter- 
mined by its construction in the sentence. Hence it usually 
takes two rules to parse a pronoun — Rule IX. for the concord 
of person, gender, and number, and the appropriate rule of syn- 
tax for its case. 



EXERCISE 42. 

In the following sentences apply Rule IX.* 

1. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. — Goldsmith. 

2. This petulance ruined Essex, who had to deal with a spirit naturally as 

proud as his own. — Macaulay. 

3. Shall he alone whom rational we call, 

Be pleased with nothing, if not blessed with all? — Pope. 

4. A land of slaves shall ne'er be mine. — Byron. 

5. Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon. — Milton. 

6. They [the Indians] are shrinking before the mighty tide which is press- 

ing them away ; they must soon hear the roar of the last wave, which 
will settle over them forever.— Sprague. 

7. Cold is thy brow, my son ! and I am chill, 

As to my bosom I h*ve tried to press thee.— Willis. 



* Model : "The relative pronoun who is of the third person, plural number, 
and common gender, to agree with its antecedent fools, according to Rule IX. 
It is in the nominative case according to Rule I." 



180 SYNTAX 

8. Woodman, spare that tree ; 

Touch not a single bough ; 
In youth it sheltered me, 

And I'll protect it now. 
'Twas my forefather's hand 

That placed it near his cot; 
Then, woodman, let it stand; 

Thy axe shall harm it not.— Morris. 



APPLIED SYNTAX OF R,TJH,E IX. 

Special Rules under Rule IX. 

Special Rule I.— A pronoun in the singular is used to represent— 

1. Two or more words in the singular number connected by or 
or nor. 

2. A collective noun denoting unity of idea. 

3. The words each, every, either, neither, one, used either with or 
without a noun or nouns, however connected. 

I. Correct Constructions. — The following are instances of correct 
constructions under Special Rule I. : 

1. But love or friendship, with its pleasures and embarrassments, 

was insufficient to occupy Swift's active mind. 

2. The army dragged itself along through the mud. 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid. 
Every season has its peculiar power of striking the mind. 
Has either girl finished her lesson ? 
Neither of these classifications is in itself erroneous. 
One is seldom at a loss what to do with Ms money. 

II. Incorrect Constructions. — The following are instances of viola- 
tions of Special Rule I. : 

1. When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he 

gives them away. 

2. Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their 

members. 
( Each was the centre of their own fair world. 
Every plant and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. 
Never was either to see their native land again. 
Neither boy has learned their lesson. 
He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 



*.\ 



RULE IX.— PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 181 

Special Rule II.— A pronoun in the plural number is used to repre- 



1. Two or more words in the singular number connected by and, 
and denoting plurality of idea. 

2. A collective noun denoting plurality of idea. 

I. Correct Constructions. — The following are instances of correct 
constructions under Special Rule II. : 

1. Both Cato and Cicero loved their country. 

2. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. 

n. Incorrect Constructions.— The following are instances ot viola- 
tions of Special Rule II. : 

1. Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience and freedom of 

opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 
2o The people were astonished at its [the people's] success. 

Special Rule III,— The relatives who and whioh are generally used 
to introduce explanatory clauses ; that is used only in introducing re- 
strictive clauses. 

I. A relative is explanatory when it continues the idea expressed 
by the antecedent, adding another thought, or w x hen it is paren- 
thetical : thus — 

1. He gave me a letter, which he requested me to read. 

2. Words, which are signs of ideas, may be divided into eight parts 

of speech. 

In their explanatory use, iclio and which introduce an additional 
proposition, and are equivalent to and he, and she, and it, and tli is, 
and they (or these), etc. Thus sentence 1 above is equivalent to 
" He gave me a letter, and he requested me to read it." Sen- 
tence 2 is equivalent to " Words, and these are the signs of ideas, 
may," etc. 
U. A relative pronoun is restrictive when, like an adjective, it limits 
the idea denoted by the antecedent : thus — 

1. The army which conquered at Waterloo was commanded by Wel- 

lington (= u The conquering army at Waterloo," etc.). 

2. The evil that men do lives after them (= u The evil done by men," 
• etc.). 

III. It is stated in Special Rule III. that the relative that is used 
restrictively only, and that who and which are generally used in 
explanatory clauses. A rigid rule confining the relatives who 



182 SYNTAX. 

and which to this explanatory use has sometimes been laid 
down.* But it does not seem possible to draw the line thus 
precisely, for it frequently happens that who or which is rightly 
used to introduce a restrictive clause. It may, however, be 
stated as a general directive principle that who and which are to 
be used in introducing explanatory clauses, and clauses not 
markedly restrictive, but that that is to be used in introducing 
a clause of emphatic restriction. In particular, that is to be 
used in preference to who or which in the following instances : 

1. After an adjective in the superlative degree : as, " This is the 
lest that I have seen." 

2. After interrogative pronouns, and demonstrative and indefinite 
adjectives or pronouns : as, " Who that has common-sense can 
say so ?" "All that he knows." " Some people that were there." 
"Any man that says so." " The same that I bought." 

3. After the verb to be used impersonally : as, " It was my father 
that said so." 

4. After a joint reference to persons and things : as, " The lady 
and the lapdog that we saw." 

5. After an antecedent consisting of a noun used in an unlimited 
sense : as, " Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." 

Special Rule IV.— In the position of singular pronouns of different 
persons, the second precedes the others, and the third precedes the first. 

Of the plural pronouns, we has the first place, you the second, and 
they the third: thus— 

1. You and he will go. 

2. He and I will go. 

3. We and they start to-morrow. 

The reason of the difference in the position of the singular and of 
the plural pronouns is this : In the singular number, the speaker ( I) 
puts himself after the person spoken to and the person spoken of, as a 
matter of politeness. But in the plural number, for the same reason, 
he puts those who are most intimately associated with him in the first 
place (unavoidably including himself and making "we"), then the 
persons spoken to, and then those spoken of. 

* Especially by Bain {English Grammar, page 23). 



RULE IX.— PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 183 

Special Rule v.— A pronoun representing words of different persons 
should agree with the first person rather than with the second, and with 
the second rather than with the third : thus— 

1. John and you and I will do our duty. 

2. You and Mary may do the work between you. 



Violations of Rule IX. 

Case 1. — When there is obscurity in the reference of a pronoun 
to its antecedent or represented word: thus — 

Re [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] 
in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of Mm [Aris- 
totle] to undertake his [Alexander's] education, and to bestow 
upon him [Alexander] those useful lessons which Ms [Philip's] 
numerous avocations would not allow Mm [Philip] to bestow. — 
Goldsmith. 
In this sentence it is very difficult to determine what is the noun 
represented by each pronoun, and this makes the entire proposition 
ambiguous. Hence — 

Caution 1. — There should be no obscurity in the reference of a 
pronoun to its antecedent or represented word* 

Case 2. — In the use of a relative without a proper antecedent: 
thus — 

Be diligent ; without which you can never succeed. 

In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative " which" can 
refer to is the adjective " diligent;" but from its very nature a relative 
can represent only a noun, or some equivalent of a noun. 

The method of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place 
of the relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the 

* It often happens that, in order to remove the ambiguity occasioned by 
pronouns of dubious reference, the only method of correction is to repeat the 
noun, or some expression equivalent to the noun to be represented. Thus 
the sentence given above may be corrected thus : " Philip wrote to Aristotle in 
terms the most polite and nattering, begging of that distinguished philosopher to 
undertake the education of Alexander, and to bestow upon him those useful 
lessons that his own numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow." 



184 SYNTAX. 

adjective. Thus, " Be diligent ; for without diligence you cannot suc- 
ceed." Hence — 

Caution 2. — Every relative pronoun should have for its ante- 
cedent a noun or its equivalent. 

Case 3. — In the improper ellipsis of a relative : thus — 
He is still in the situation you saw him. 

The relative pronoun which, connected by in, is here necessary in 
order to join the clause "you saw him" with the first statement. 
Thus, "He is still in the situation in which you saw him." Without 
this the parts of the sentence lack proper cohesion. Hence — 

Caution 3. — The relative, and the preposition governing it, should 
not be omitted when they are necessary to give connection to the sen- 
tence. 

NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. Problem of Gender. — It is customary to use the mnsculine pro- 
noun of the third person singular when reference is made to a word 
of indeterminate gender : thus, " Let every one attend to his own bus* 
iness." " A parent should love his child." A difficulty ariser when 
we wish to represent two singular nouns of different genders taken 
separately: as— 

If an ox gore a man or a woman so that . . . die. 
To use the plural pronoun, " they die," violates Special Rule I. ; and 
as in English there is no third personal pronoun singular of common 
gender, it becomes necessary in such cases to make a clumsy repetition 
of pronouns of corresponding genders : thus, " If an ox gore a man or 
a woman so that he or she die." Most writers prefer to use the plural 
pronoun, disregarding the principle in Special Rule I., rather than 
adopt this formal iteration.* 

* Cobbett (E?iglish Grammar) insists strongly on the repetition of the pro- 
noun in different genders, and holds that, however disagreeable repetition may 
be, it is better than obscurity or inaccuracy. This point is touched in the parody 
on Cobbett 7 s style in the Brothers Smith's Rejected Addresses: "I take it for 
granted that every intelligent man, woman, and child to whom I address my- 
self has stood severally and respectively in Little Russell Street, and cast their, 
his, her, and its eyes on the outside of this building before they paid their 
money to view the inside." 






RULE IX.— PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 185 

II. Uses of " which." — The relative which may have a proposition 
for its antecedent : thus, " Caesar crossed the Rubicon, which was in ef- 
fect a declaration of war." Here " which" has for antecedent, not the 
noun " Rubicon," but the entire proposition " Caesar crossed the Rubi- 
con." 

It is also to be noted that, when the antecedent is a collective 
noun expressing unity of idea, even though it implies persons, the 
relative which, and not who^ is generally used. Thus, " The family 
which they considered as usurpers." 

A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appellative taken in 
any sense not strictly personal, is represented by which, and not by 
who : as, "Herod — which is but another name for cruelty." 

III. K Whose." — By some the rule has been laid down that 
whose should be employed to represent only masculine or feminine 
nouns ; but there is no justification of this, either in etymology or in 
the best modern usage. In Anglo-Saxon the genitive hwces was em- 
ployed for the neuter as well as for the masculine and feminine. In the 
poets we constantly find whose referring to neuter nouns : thus — 

1. That undiscovered country 

From whose bourn no traveller returns. — Shakqxare. 

2, The poor banished insects ichose intent, 
Though they did ill, was innocent. — Shelley. 

TV. Relatives with Prepositions.— The relative that cannot be pre- 
ceded by its governing preposition; the preposition must be placed 
at the end of the clause : as, " The steamboat that I went up the river 
in was sunk." 

The prepositions governing whom and which may be placed at the 
end of the clause, but modern usage prefers placing them immediate- 
ly he/ore the relatives. Thus it is deemed more elegant to say, " The 
steamer in which I went up the river," than " The steamer which I went 
up the river in." In many cases a much more vigorous and effective 
statement is made by introducing a clause by that, and following it by 
its governing preposition, than by introducing it by which or whom, 
preceded by its governing preposition. Thus, " The musquito is 
good for nothing that I hioio of" is much less pompous than " The 
musquito is good for nothing of which I know." 



186 SYNTAX. 

V. An exception to the principle stated in Caution 2 is found in 

the following idiomatic construction : 

And do you now strew flowers in his way, 

That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? — JShakspeare. 

Here " that " has for its antecedent the possessive pronoun " his ;" but 
the objection that "his" is a mere adjunct may be met by the state- 
ment that " his " is here equivalent to of him, and that him, implied in 
his, is the logical antecedent of the relative " that." 

VI. As and But,— As is often used as a substitute for a relative pro- 
noun, especially after same and such : thus— 

1. Art thou afeard 
To be the same in thine own act and valor 
As thou art in desire ? 

2. Tears such as angels weep burst forth. 

But is used as a relative when it follows a negative. Its force is 
then equivalent to who -f- not, or which -f- not : thus — 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
But has [= which has not] one vacant chair. 



EXERCISE 43. 

In the following sentences correct the yiolations of Rule 
IX. 

1. A civilized people has no right to violate their solemn obligations. 

2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 

3. We see the beautiful variety of colors in the rainbow, and are led to 

consider the cause of it. 

4. At home I studied geometry, that I found useful afterwards. 

5. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 

them in a book. 

6. This is the friend which I love. 

7. Man is not such a machine as a watch or a clock, which move merely 

as they are moved. 

8. Had the doctor been contented to take my dining-tables, as anybody 

in their senses would have done. 

9. Not on outward charms should man or woman build their pretensions 

to please. 

10. Each contributed what they could. 

11. Those that have the Fourth Reader will bring them with them. 

12. An invitation was sent to me and George. 



RULE X.—THE PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT. 187 



VII. CONNECTIVE RELATION. 
1. THE PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT. 

Eule X. — 1. A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some 
other word. 

2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in the 
objective case. 



EXERCISE 44. 

In the following sentences apply Eule X.* 

1. To him who in the love of Nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. — Bryant. 

2. The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South Carolina, 

by the honorable gentleman, for her Revolutionary and other merits, 
meets my hearty concurrence. — Daniel Webster. 

3. Into the jaws of death, into the mouth of hell 
Rode the Six Hundred.— Tennyson. 

4. At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk was dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. — Halleck. 

5. But now no sound of laughter was heard amongst the foes, 

A wild and wrathful clamor from all the vanguard rose. — Macaulay. 

6. Run to your houses, fall upon your knees, 
Pray to the gods to intermit the plague 

That needs must light on this ingratitude. — Shakspeare. 

7. The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure; the 

woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel; the air is per- 
fumed by the sweetbrier and the wild rose ; the meadows are enamelled 
with clover blossoms ; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum 
begin to swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. — Wash- 
ington Irving. 

* Model : "The preposition to joins the pronoun him to the verb speaks; 
him is in the objective case, according to Rule X." 



J88 SYNTAX. 

APPLIED SYNTAX OF RULE X. 

Violations under Rule X. 

Case 1. — When the preposition is remote from the pronoun ob- 
ject : as — 

Who did you get that book from f 

This sentence exemplifies a common colloquial arrangement of 
words ; and in this type of sentence the remoteness of the object from 
its governing preposition renders the liability to error in the case-form 
very great. Hence — • 

Caution 1. — When a governing preposition is remote from its 
pronoun object, care must be taken that the pronoun has the objective 
form. 

Case 2. — When in two or more pronoun objects there is an ellip- 
sis of a governing preposition : as — 

I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 

In this sentence there is an ellipsis of the preposition to before who; 
but to who is a violation of Rule X. It should be : "I know not 
whom," or"I know not to whom." Hence — 

Caution 2. — When there occurs an ellipsis of a governing prep- 
osition, care should be taken that the pronoun object has the objective 
form. 

NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. Between and Among. — Between literally signifies by twain, that 
is, by two's. Hence it cannot apply to more than two. We may say, 
" Mother divided the apple between sister and me" but not " between 
John, James, and Martha." The preposition among or amongst is used 
to denote distribution applied to more than two : as, " The booty was 
divided among the forty thieves." 

II. Appropriate Prepositions. — There are many words that can be 
followed by but one preposition; there are other words that admit 
differeiil prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care 



RULE XL— THE CONJUNCTION. 189 

should be taken to select the preposition fitted to denote the precise 
relation intended to be denoteck (For this purpose reference should, 
in cases of doubt, be made to the dictionary.) 

IIL Suppression of Object.— The object of a preposition is some- 
times suppressed : as, " We found the man [that] we were looking 
for." 

IV. But. — But used in such a construction as "all but him" is often 
wrongly taken for a conjunction. The words differ in origin. But is 
an old preposition meaning literally on the outside of\ and hence without 
or except. Phrases like u all or none but he" are ungrammatical. But 
may be followed by the infinitive without to : as, " He does nothing 
but [to] sleep." 

EXERCISE 45. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of 
Rule X. 

1. Who did you vote for? 

2. There is no one at home now besides mother, uncle, and I. 

3. There were no marks to show who the sheep belonged to. 

4. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 

5. I bestow my favors on whoever I will. 

6. Who you spend your evenings with is well known. 

7. So you must ride 

On horseback after we. 

8. The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but he had fled. 

9. The money is to be divided between the three brothers. 
10. No one but he should be about the king. 



2. THE CONJUNCTION. 

Rule XL — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or proposi- 
tions: as— 






1. Oxygen and hydrogen are called gases. 

2. He strove with all his powers and to a noble end. 

3. [The sun shines] because [the sky is clear]. 



190 SYNTAX. 

To the rule that conjunctions have a connective office there appear to 
be two exceptions : • 

1. The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a 
clause that is the subject of the principal statement : as, " That 
you have wronged me doth appear in this." But this is merely 
a case of ellipsis and inversion, the construction being equiva- 
lent to, " It doth appear in this that you have wronged me." 

2. In the construction with correlative conjunctions, the antecedent 
or introductory conjunction can scarcely be said to connect, the 
connective force belonging to the subsequent conjunction. In 
parsing, it is proper to call the first of a pair of corresponding 
conjunctions an introductory correlative conjunction. 



EXERCISE 46. 

In the following sentences apply Rule XL 

1. Lightly and brightly breaks away 

The morning from her mantle gray. — Byron. 

2. Right sharp and quick the bells all night 
Rang out from Bristol town. — Macaulay. 

3. Men must work and women must weep, 

Though storms be hidden and waters deep. — Kingsley. 

4. A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the true value 

of time, and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary pain.— John- 
son. 

5. These wave their town flag in the arched gateway ; and stand, rolling 

their drum; but to no purpose. — Carlyle. 

6. For none made sweeter melody 

Than did the poor blind boy. — Wordsworth. 

7. Whether the thing was green or blue. — Colman. 

8. No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide. — Joanna Baillie. 

9. Whether he was combined 
With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel 
With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both 

He labor' d in his country's wrack, I know not.— Shakspeare. 
10. This, I think, I may at least say, that we should have a great many fewer 
disputes in the world, if words were taken for what they are, the signs 
of our ideas only, and not for things themselves. — Locke. 



RULE XL— THE CONJUNCTION. \§\ 

APPLIED SYNTAX OE RULE XI. 

Special Rules under Rule XL 

Special Rule I.— Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding 
conjunctions; and in a pair of correlative conjunctions the antecedent 
and subsequent should correspond. 

Though requires yet : as— 

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Whether requires or : as — 

Whether the thing was green or blue. 

Either requires or ; as — 
None of them either returned his gaze or seemed to notice it. 

Neither requires nor : as— 
Neither in France nor in Spain does this custom exist. 

Note. — Either — or and neither — nor, strictly speaking, express an alterna- 
tive, or choice between two ; and in modern times exact writers are 
careful not to employ these pairs of correlatives to unite more than 
two terms. 

Both requires and : as — 
Power to judge both quick and dead. 

As — as is used in affirmative comparison : as — 
Mine is as good as yours. 

So — as is used in negative comparison : as — 
But his is not so good as either ; 

or to express a restrictive comparison : as — 
Be so good as to read this letter. 

Special Rule II.— When two terms, the one requiring than and the 
other as, are connected, the terms should not be joined in such a way 
as to represent the double relation by only one of these conjunctions: 

thus — 

1. He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cynthio. 
In this sentence the two terms " more beloved " and " so much ad- 
mired " are connected, and the double correlation of terms is repre- 
sented by the conjunction as. But a comparative, as "more beloved," 
requires to be followed by than (for we cannot say u more beloved as 



192 SYNTAX. 

Cynthio"), and the construction in such cases must be changed so as 
to introduce the appropriate conjunction. Thus — 

He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired. 

2. I would do as much or more work than John. 

Incorrect : the conjunction than is made to represent the correlative 
both of "as much" and of "more;" but " as much" requires to be 
followed by the conjunction as. Correct as follows : 

I would do as much work as John, or more [than he]. 

Special Rule III.— Oare should be taken to employ a conjunction 
fitted to express the connection intended. 

I. That should be used in place of lest, out, but what, but that, after 
expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial: as — 

I do not doubt that [not bid that or but what] he is honest. 

II. After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter term of 
comparison should be introduced by than, not by but, besides, or 
except: as — 

He no sooner retires but [should be than] his heart burns with de- 
votion. 

III. Than is often improperly used for a preposition : as — 

1. That is a very different statement than what [should be from what] 

you made yesterday. 

2. I should prefer being right than being President [should be to 

being]. 

NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. 

I. Rhetoric of Conjunctions. — The omission of the conjunction fre- 
quently imparts energy to the narrative : thus — 

Through many a dark and dreary vale 
They passed, and many a region dolorous; 
O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
Hocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death — 
A universe of death. — Milton. 

On the other hand, the rhetorical repetition of the conjunction serves 

to emphasize details : thus — 

Seasons return ; but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flock, or herds, or human face divine. — Milton. 



RULE XL— THE CONJUNCTION. 193 

And — and is often used in poetry for both — and, or — or for either — or, 
and nor — nor for neither — nor : thus — 

1. And trump and timbrel answered them. — Scott. 

2. I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move — Walsh. 

II. Than — "than whom." — The case of a noun or pronoun follow- 
ing than depends on the construction of the subsequent clause (which, 
however, is generally elliptical) . thus — 

1. I esteem you more than they [esteem you]. 

2. I esteem you more than them [=than I esteem them]. 

A peculiar construction, than whom, is exemplified in the following : 

1. Beelzebub, than whom, 

Satan except, none higher sat. — Milton. 

2. Pope, than whom few men had more vanity. — Johnson. 

If we substitute the personal pronoun, we shall see that the nomina* 
tive case is required. Thus : " None sat higher than he ;" " had more 
vanity than he." This construction must therefore be regarded as 
anomalous ; but it has been used by so many reputable authors that 
we can scarcely refuse to accept it. It is probably the result of con- 
founding the English idiom with the Latin comparative followed by 
the ablative quo. " In Latin quo means than who, and than is expressed 
by the ablative. Classical scholars writing in English have supplied 
than, and yet, with the Latin syntax in their minds, have retained the 
oblique (objective) case."* 



EXERCISE 47. 

In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule 
XL 

1. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

2. He is more bold but not so wise as his companion 

3. Will it be urged that the four Gospels are as old or even older than 

tradition ? 

4. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written 

5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, as knowledge. 

* Rushton, Hales and Cautions, p. 104. Dr. Priestley seems to have had a no- 
tion that than is in such cases a preposition, and Mr. Abbott {English Grammar, 
p. 210) says it was perhaps regarded as a quasi-preposition. But this is no help 
in the explanation of the construction, which, indeed, is idiomatic. 

i 



194 SYNTAX. 

6. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for speaking, compos- 

ing, or parsing correctly. 

7. No one gave his opinion so modestly as he. 

8. I do not deny but he has merit. 

9. We expected something more besides this. 

10. Was the singing any different to-night than usual ? 



VIII. ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CON- 
STRUCTIONS. 

NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE-INDEPENDENT-INTEEJEOTIOK 

Rule XIL— l. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no 
other word is put in the nominative absolute. 2. The nominative 
independent and the interjection have no grammatical relation 
to the other parts of the sentence. 

I. Absolute Construction, — In the absolute construction the noun 
or pronoun is always joined with a participle, the two forming 
a phrase . thus — 

1. Spring returning, the swallows reappear. 

2. They being unprepared, we began the attack. 

This construction is called absolute, because the noun or pronoun 
is loosed or absolved from grammatical dependence on any 
other words in the sentence. The absolute construction in 
Anglo-Saxon was the dative,* and we find this construction in 
authors as late as Milton : thus — 

And him destroyed 
For whom all this was made, all this will soon 
Follow.— Paradise Lost. 

" Him " is here not an objective, but a real dative. The loss of case- 
inflections has led to the confounding of the cases, and modern usage 
requires the nominative case in this construction. 



* In Latin the ablative, in Greek the genitive. 



RULE XIL—XOMIXATIVE ABSOLUTE, ETC. 195 



EXERCISE 48. 

In the following sentences apply Rule XII. 

1. The president having given his assent, the bill became a law. 

2. Those barbarous ages past, succeeded next the birthday of invention. 

3. Then shall I be no more ; 

And Adam, wedded to another Eve, 

Shall live with her enjoying; I [being] extinct. 

4. Success being now hopeless, preparations were made for retreat. 

5. Thou looking on, 
Shamed to be overcome or overreached 
Would utmost vigor raise. 



II. Independent Construction. — Under the independent construc- 
tion occur the following cases : 

1. When, by direct address, a noun is put in the second person, 
and set off from the verb by a comma : as — 

Horatius, saith the consul, 
As thou sayest, so let it be. 

2. "When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for emphasis : as — 

The boy, oh ! where was he ? 

3. When, by exclamation (one of the figures of rhetoric), a word is 
employed in the manner of an interjection : as — 

Oh ? deep enchanting prelude to repose ! 



EXERCISE 49. 

In the following sentences apply Rule XII. 

1. Awake, my St John, leave all meaner things. — Pope. 

2. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God.- 

Bible. 

3. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse \—Shak?peare. 

4. Plato, thou reasonest well. — Addison. 

5 O thou that with surpassing glory crowned, 
Look'st from thy sole dominion, like the God 
Of this new world. 

O sun ! to tell thee how I hate thy beams —Milton. 

6 The gallant king, he skirted still 

The margin of that mighty hill.-— Scott. 



196 SYNTAX. 

The Interjection. — The interjection is to be parsed as "having no 
grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence." 

The term interjection {inter, between, and jacere, to cast or throw) sig- 
nifies something that is thrown in among things of which it does not 
naturally form a constituent part ; that is to say, among the words of a 
sentence. Speech is the expression of thought, but an interjection is 
the expression of feeling : so that it is not, strictly speaking, a part of 
speech* Indeed, in place of being a part of a sentence, it is itself 
an entire though unanalyzed utterance of emotion, and expresses in its 
own way what it would require a whole sentence to state — provided 
this statement were possible. 

Below will be found a few illustrations of the use of interjections, t 

1. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

2. Alas! both for the deed and for the cause, 

3. Alack! when once we have our grace forgot, nothing goes right. 

4. They opened their mouth wide against me, and said: "Aha! aha!" 

5. Fy! my lord,/?// a soldier, and afraid! 

6. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn ? 

7. "Ho! shifts she thus?" King Henry cried. 

8. Hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 

9. Nature, how in every charm supreme ! 
10. But she is in her grave — and oh 

The difference to me ! % 



* " Almost all animals have some peculiar sound to explain any sudden 
feeling they experience. The interjection is such a sound, as employed by 
man."-^-Morreirs Grammar. 

t The following etymologies of a few common interjections may be of in- 
terest : 

Alas! ah lesso=0 [me] miserable. 

Adieu, d I)ieu=[I commend you] to God. 

Good-bye, God V wV ye=zGod be with you. 

dear, Dieu—O God. 

Amen, a Hebrew adverb signifying verily, truly, yea. 

% The last two examples illustrate a distinction which should be observed 
in writing the interjection or Oh. is merely the sijrn of the ''nominative 
independent' 1 (vocntive), whereas oh conveys a particular sentiment, as of 
appeal, grief, etc. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. 197 



IX. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. 

I. The Infinitive. 

Eule 1 1 — The infinitive depends upon a noun, a verb, or 
an adjective, and takes the same complements and modifiers 
as the verb. 

I. An infinitive may always be disposed of by one of the XII. Rules 
of Syntax, or by one of the Special Rules. But as it is often 
difficult to determine the construction of this verbal, the rule 
above given may be used instead of that which more directly 
applies. 

II. To, of the infinitive, is generally omitted after the verbs bid, 
dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, in the active voice: as, "Bid 
him go;" "I hear thee speak of the better land;" "I dare do 
all that may become a man." 

III. The infinitive is sometimes absolute : as, " To tell you the 
truth, I do not like him ; " " Marley was dead, to begin with." 

II. The Gerund. 

Eule II. — The gerund has the construction of the noun 
with the complements and modifications of the verb. 

I. The noun construction of the gerund is exemplified in its use as 
subject or object of a verb, in its dependence on a preposition, 
and in its taking a possessive : as — 

1. Reading is profitable. 

2. Bees are skilful in building. 

3. His [or John's] making money is no proof of merit. 

II. The verb construction of the gerund is exemplified in the fact 
that it may take an object or other complement, and may re- 
ceive an adverbial modifier : as — 

1. Bees are skilful in buildi?ig their hives. 

2. On growing old, lie became avaricious. 

3. Reading daily is profitable. 



198 SYNTAX. 

III. The Participle. 

Ellle IIIi — The participle has the construction of the ad- 
jective, with the complement and modifications of the verb : 
as— 

1. What man, seeing this, does not blush ? 

The participle "seeing" has here the construction of the adjective 
(it modifies "man"), while it takes as object "this," a pronoun 
in the objective case. 

2. Verse, in the finest mould of fancy cast. 
Was lumber in an age so void of taste. 

The participle " cast," as an adjective, modifies the noun " verse," 
and is modified by the phrase " in the finest mould of fancy." 

Note. — In such sentences as, "He was wonderfully active, considering his 
age;" "Granting what you say, does it answer any argument?" — sentences 
in which the adjective relation is not apparent— the participle may be said to 
be used independently, or absolutely. 

IV. Subjunctive Mood. 

Eule IV. — The subjunctive mood is used in a subordi- 
nate proposition when both contingency and futurity are 
expressed, or when the contrary fact is implied : as — 

1. If he continue to study, he will improve. 

2. If he were guilty [as he is not], he would suffer. 

I. But when a condition is assumed as real the statement is made 
by means of the indicative : as — 

1. If he has money [as it is assumed he has], he keeps it. 

2. If he is guilty [as he probably is], he will suffer. 

II. A good practical rule with respect to the use of the subjunc- 
tive is that it is to be employed whenever a potential or a future 
auxiliary is implied : thus — 

1. Though he [may] slay me, I will trust in him. 

2. Go thy way lest a worse fate [should] befall thee. 

3. If it were [should be] done, when 'tis done, then "'twere [would be] well 
It were [should be] done quickly. 



8YNTAK OF VERBS AND VERBALS. 199 

HI. The choice between the indicative and the subjunctive mood 
has long been a matter of considerable difficulty. The tendency 
of modern usage is to disregard the niceties discovered or im- 
agined by grammarians regarding the employment of the sub- 
junctive, and it is probable that this form will in time disap- 
pear from our language. 

V. "Shall" and "Will." 

Eule V. — The correct use of the auxiliaries shall and will 
depends fundamentally upon the following principle : 

TTill expresses the icill or pleasure of its oicn subject; 
Shall subordinates the will of its subject to that of the 

SPEAKER. 

I. Usage, however, has modified the application of this principle 
as follows : 

1. In the first person — where the subject is also the speaker — icill 
is used to express determination ; shall, to express simple fu- 
turity. 

2. In the second and third persons, the speaker asserts his will 
when he uses shall, and waives his will when he uses icill: as, 
% * You (or he) shall "=it is my will that you (or he) shall : " You 
(or he) will," leaves it to your (or his) will; or simply indicates 
futurity. 

3. Shall is also used when the event is beyond the control both 
of subject and of speaker : as — 

The Lord will come ; the earth shall quake. 

4. In questions, when the " will " of the person interrogated is 
appealed to, icill can be used properly in the second person 
only : thus, M Shall I (he) ?"=Is it your will that I (he) shall? 
11 Will you ?'*=Is it your will ? 

5. When the opinion merely of the person addressed is asked, 
icill may be used in the first and third persons, and shall in the 
second ; thus, M Which icill I (he) choose ?" = Which do you 
think I intend (he intends) to choose ? " Shall you be elected V } 
=Do you think that you shall be elected ? 



200 SYNTAX. 

II. The same rules apply to should and would both in the con- 
ditional and in the subjunctive mood.* 

Note. — It is almost impossible to reduce to rules the niceties of usage in 
shall and mil, should and would; and in fact the fewer rules on this subject the 
better, since those to whom English is the mother-tongue, and who have not 
been corrupted by provincialisms, acquire an instinct that is the best guide in 
the employment of these subtle auxiliaries.? 

VI. Use of Tense-Forms. 
Eule VI ■ — The following principles regarding the use of 
tenses are to be carefully observed : 

I. When a verb, taking an infinitive as complement, refers to a 
future act or circumstance, the present, not the perfect, infinitive 

should be used : thus — 

1. I intended to write you last week [not to have written you]. 

2. I expected to go to Europe [not to havegone\. 

Though the verbs " intended " and " expected " are in the past 
tense, yet the reference is to a future time as regards what was in- 
tended and expected. 

II. But when a verb, taking an infinitive as complement, refers to 
a past act or circumstance, the perfect, not the present, infinitive 
should be used : thus — 

He appeared to have seen better days. 

HI. When two or more compound tenses of the same verb are 
connected, such parts of the tense-forms as are not common to 
all must be inserted : thus — 

This elucidation may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall 
be published. — Bolingbroke. 

" Published," the past participle of the verb publish, is correctly 
used with " shall be ;" its ellipsis with " is " is proper ; but the 
ellipsis with " has " is improper, because the writer intended to say 
has been published, using the present perfect tense, passive voice. 

IV. The past tense should not be employed in forming the com- 
pound tenses, nor should the past participle be used for the 
past tense. Thus: say, a to have gone" — not u to have went;" 
" I did it "—not " I done it." 

* Dalgleish : English Grammar. 

t Sir Edmund Head has devoted to this subject an entire volume, entitled 
"Shall" and "WW." 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 201 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 

OF IMPROPRIETIES IN SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. 

I. 

1. This exercise is very easy done. 

2. How many square feet is there in a floor twenty feet long and sixteen 

feet wide ? 

3. In France cheap wood is made to perfectly imitate mahogany. 

4. The great historian and the essayist is no more. 

5. It could not have been her. 

6. Did you see the man and the dog which passed this way? 

7. I intend to immediately retire from business. 

8. I think I will return home next week. 

9. The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 

10. Who are you looking for ? 

11. The collection of books that have come down to us from that period 

are very valuable. 

12. I expected to have been at home when you called. 

13. It was him and me that were chosen to go. 

14. When will we three meet again ? 

15. He not only ought, but mast succeed. 

16. I never saw it rain so heavy before. 

17. His work is one of the best that has ever appeared. 

18. It has been said that politics are but little more than common-sense. 

19. Metal types were now introduced, which before this time had been made 

of wood. 

20. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 

II. 

1. Each strives to get ahead of the other in their own little craft. 

2. Her father and her rode about the country. 

3. I would like to know whose hat this is. 

4. Of what gender are each of the following nouns? 

5. He now began his work in earnest. 

6. One of the greatest evils which now oppresses France is the want of a 

high moral tone among her people. 

7. If he plunge into the sea, he feels the law that defies the boundaries of 

his perfect liberty. 

8. I meant to have written to you last Friday. 

9. W T ho did you say you met this morning? 

10. They have neither occasion for beauty, money, or good conduct. 

11. This is one of the most memorable battles that ever have or will be 

fought. 

12. I trust you shall overlook the circumstance of me having come to school 

late. 

12 



202 SYNTAX. 

13. What is the difference between an adjective and participle ? 

14. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 

15. Have you no other book but this ? 

16. He is only fitted to govern others who can govern himself. 

17. The spirit, and not the letter, of the law are what we ought to follow. 

18. The man could neither read or write. 

19. The Book of Psalms were written by David. 

20. That building must be either a church or school. 

III. 

1. The two are here compared with one another. 

2. It has taken man thousands of years to in part discover the laws of 

nature. 

3. This we will have occasion to see illustrated hereafter. 

4. Mary, for all her anxious words, was not so sure as me. 

5. The past has now began to renew its quaint existence. 

6. Our words would look very oddly to us in a phonetic dress. 

7. Such a club has other merits besides those that are intellectual. 
8. 1 can read as well as her, but she sings better than me. 

9. This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the 
author's veracity. 

10. I had the physician, the surgeon, and the apothecary's assistance. 

11. It was Peter the Hermit, him that incited the crusade. 

12. Here come my old friend and teacher. 

13. The minute finger and the hour hand has each its particular use. 

14. Which of that group of men is the taller? 

15. What boy amongst us can foretell their future career? 

16. An account of the great events in all parts of the world are given in th*B 

daily papers. 

17. If I were in his position, I would not have gone. 

18. They would neither eat themselves nor suffer nobody else to eat. 

19. Did you expect to have heard so poor a speech ? 
20. 1 cannot give you no more money. 

IV. 

1. We did no more but what we ought to. 

2. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

3. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 

4. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 

5. Every one is the best judge of their own conscience. 

6. They told me of him having failed. 

7. He has already, and will continue to receive many honors. 

8. One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed to be baked, 

9. The party whom he invited was very numerous. 

10. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produced thirst 
1L The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES, 203 

12. Such expressions sound harshly. 

13. What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a 

business ? 

14. Either you or I are in the way. 

15. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 

16. I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which fortune 

and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 

17. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 

18. Let me awake the King of Morven, he that is like the sun of heaven 

rising in a storm. 

19. The nation was rumed by the profligacy of their nobles. 

20. Ruth and I, and you too, must answer for yourselves. 



1. Either the young man or his guardian have acted improperly. 

2. The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were 

written many years ago. 

3. A talent of this kind would prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. 

4. On your conduct at this moment depends the color and complexion of 

their destiny. 

5. That is either a man or a woman's voice. 

6. Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within 

his own breast. 

7. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 

8. And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from that 

source than from anything else. 

9. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 

10. The logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some de- 

gree coincides. 

11. But she fell a-laughing like one out of their right mind. 

12. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 

13. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. 

14. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 

15. Gold is heavier and more valuable than any metal. 

16. In him were happily blended true dignity with softness of manners. 

17. The saint, the father, and the husband pray. 

18. These verses were written by a young man who has long lain in his 

grave, for his own amusement. 

19. The Atlantic Ocean separates the eastern and western continent. 

20. A second deluge learning thus o'errun, 

And the monks finished what the Goths begun. 



SECTION III 

ANALYSIS. 



CHAPTER I. 

DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 

I. The Sentence and its Elements. 

202. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
constituent elements. 

For the distinction between analysis and syntax, and for the view 
that both form parts of the Doctrine of the Sentence, see p. 139, 

203. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a 
complete thought : thus — 

1. The proper study of mankind is man. 

2. I hear thee speak of the better land. 

I. A sentence is the formal statement of a thought. An interjec- 
tion may, in substance, express a thought, but it does not do so 
in form, and hence it does not constitute a sentence. 

II. By " expressing a complete thought " is meant that — (1) some- 
thing is said, (2) about something. 

204. The elements of a sentence are its constituent 
parts. They may be considered with reference to their 
rank, their structure, and their office. 

I. By Bank. 

205. With reference to rank, the elements of a sentence 
are classed as — I. Principal elements. II. Subordinate 
elements. III. Independent. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 205 

206. Principal or essential elements are the words nec- 
essary for the expression of a thought. 

207. Subordinate elements are words joined with the 
principal elements for the purpose of expressing some mod- 
ification of the thought. 

208. The principal elements of a sentence are: I. The 
subject. II. The predicate. 

209. The subject represents that of which something is 
stated. 

210. The predicate tells what is stated of the subject: 
thus — 



SUBJECT. 


PREDICATE. 


1. Birds 

2. Some birds 

3. Some birds 

4. Some birds of this country 


sing 

sing 

sing sweetly 

sing sweetly during the day 



211, Adjuncts. — The subordinate elements of a sentence 
are called adjuncts, or modifiers. 

I. When adjuncts are added to a subject or to a predicate, the sub- 
ject or the predicate is said to be modified or enlarged; and 
the terms modification or enlargement of the subject or of the 
predicate may be used as synonymous with adjunct, or modifier, 
of the subject, etc. 

II. M Some" in 2 and 3 above, and " some" and " of this country" 
in 4, are adjuncts, or modifiers, or enlargements, of the subject. 
" Sweetly" in 3, and "sweetly" and "during the day" in 4, are 
adjuncts, etc., of the predicate. 

212. The simple or grammatical subject is the subject 
without adjuncts : as, " Birds fly swiftly." 



206 ANALYSIS. 



213, The complete or logical subject is the subject with 
its adjuncts : as, " The proper study of mankind is man." 



LOGICAL SUBJECT. 


LOGICAL PREDICATE. 


Grammatical Subject. 


Adjuncts of Subject. 


study 


The 

proper 

of mankind 


is man. 



214. The simple or grammatical predicate is the verb- 
word or verb-phrase used in making the assertion : as — 

1. Birds fly. 

2. Birds may have flown. 

215. The complete or logical predicate is the predicate- 
verb with all that is attached to it — complement or adjuncts, 
or both : thus — 

LOGICAL PREDICATE. 

J [simple pred.] [adjunct] [complement] [adjunct] 

Night stretches (1) forth (2) her sceptre (3) o'er a prostrate world. 

The important distinction between the complement of a predicate 
(which, in the case of all incomplete verbs, is essential to predi- 
cation) and a mere modifier should be carefully noted. In this 
view it may be convenient to employ the term complex predicate 
to designate the predicate-verb together with the complement, 
and logical predicate to designate the verb with its complement 
and modifiers. 

216. Independent Elements,— Independent elements are 
words or phrases not related to the other parts of the sen- 
tence; that is, they are neither principal nor subordinate 
elements: as — 

1. To say the least, it was very surprising. 

2. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 

3. Well, it is now too late. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 207 

Connectives are conjunctions, relative pronouns, and conjunctive 
adverbs. 

II. By Structure. 

217. With reference to their structure the elements of 
a sentence are classified as : I. Words. II. Phrases. III. 
Propositions (including clauses). 

218. A phrase is a combination of related words forming 
an element of a sentence, and equivalent to a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

A phrase may be introduced by— 

1. A preposition, thus forming a prepositional phrase : as — 

1. Darius retreated into Persia. 

2. The fruit of that forbidden tree. 

2. An infinitive, thus forming an infinitive phrase : as — 
To love our neighbors as ourselves is a divine command. 

3. A participle, thus forming a participial phrase : as — 

1. Having crossed the Rubicon, Caesar's army advanced on Rome. 

2. Children, coming home from school, look in at the open door. 

219. A proposition is the combination of a subject with a 
predicate, forming either an independent or a dependent 
statement: thus — 

1. Life is but an empty dream. 

2. Tell me not that life is but an empty dream. 

A proposition forming an independent, or principal, statement is 
a simple sentence. 

220. A clause is a dependent, or subordinate, proposition, 
introduced by a connective : thus — 

1. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, 

2. Lives Newton's deathless memory. 



208 ANALYSIS. 

From the definitions of a proposition and of a clause, it will be 
inferred that while a sentence is always a proposition, a prop- 
osition is not necessarily always a sentence: for a clause or 
dependent proposition is not a sentence, but an element of a 
sentence. 

221. A word is termed an element of the Jlrst degree; 
a phrase, an element of the second degree ; and a clause, an 
element of the third degree. 

III. By Office. 

222. —With reference to their office, the elements of 
a sentence are classified as: L Substantive. II. Adjec- 
tive. III. Adverbial. 

223. A substantive word, phrase, or clause is a word, 
phrase, or clause used as a noun ; an adjective word, phrase, 
or clause is one used as an adjective ; an adverbial word, 
phrase, or clause is one used as an adverb. 

/ If the element is a word, its classification as a part of speech 
determines its office ; if a phrase or clause, the test is : What 
part of speech would this be if the idea were expressed by a 
single word? 



SUMMARY. 

J Principal, 
Subordinate, 
Independent 
! Words, 
Phrases, 
Propositions. 
C Substantive, 

The elements classed by office are <j Adjective, 

(Adverbial. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 209 

EXERCISE 50. 
A. 

In the following sentences select the grammatical and 
the logical subjects, and the grammatical and the logical 
predicates. 

1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

2. Chaucer, the father, of English poetry, wrote the Canterbury Tales. 

3. Brave soldiers fell at Thermopylae. 

4. Tennyson wrote the Idylls of the King. 

5. Nothing in his life became him like the leaving it. 

6. All the land, in flowery squares, beneath a broad and equal-blowing 

wind, smelt of the coming summer. 

7. The morn, in russet mantle clad, 

Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 

8. Short-lived likings may be bred 
By a glance from fickle eyes. 

9. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 

10. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a prostrate world. 

B. 

In the following distinguish phrases and clauses from sen- 
tences. 

1. To die is gain. 2. Not to know me. 3. The design has never been com- 
pleted. 4. A design which has never been completed. 5. Sailing to Europe in 
a steamer. 6. The morn, in russet mantle clad. 7. From bad to worse. 8. Snow- 
drifts. 9. When morning showed the snow-drifts. 10. For conscience' sake. 
11. Alas ! poor Yorick. 12. When I knew him, Horatio. 13. Remote from 
towns. 14. Go. 15. Gone from our gaze. 16. Does it matter? 17. No. 18. Into 
the jaws of death. 19. Rode the Six Hundred. 20. Perish the thought! 



II. Classes of Sentences. 

224. How Classified, — Sentences are classified (1) accord- 
ing to their use; (2) according to their structure. 



210 ANALYSIS. 

L By Use. 

225. According to their use, sentences are divided into 
four classes: I. Declarative. II. Interrogative. III. 
Imperative. IV. Exclamative (or Exclamatory). 

226. A declarative sentence is one that expresses an as- 
sertion (that is, an affirmation or a negation) : as — 

1. Man is mortal. 

2. Into the jaws of death rode the Six Hundred. 

3. If it were so, it were a grievous fault. 

227. An interrogative sentence is one that expresses a 
question : as — 

1. Is man mortal ? 

2. Did the Six Hundred ride into the jaws of death ? 

228. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a com- 
mand or an entreaty : as — 

1. Come when the heart beats high and warm. 

2. Put money in thy purse. 

229. An exclamative (or exclamatory) sentence is one 
that expresses a thought in an interjectional manner : as — 

Oh ! that this too, too solid flesh would melt ! 

The following passage from a well-known speech of Patrick Henry 
affords an admirable illustration of the several kinds of sentence as 
classified by use : 

" They tell us, sir, that we are weak — unable to cope with so for- 
midable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger ? Will 
it be the next week, or the next year? Shall we gather strength 
by irresolution and inaction ? Sir, we are not weak, if we make 
a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath 
placed in our power. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone : 
it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. If we were base 
enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. 
The war is inevitable — and let it come. Our brethren are al- 
ready in the field. Why stand we here idle ? Is life so dear, 



CLASSES OF SEXTEXCES. 211 

or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and 
slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course 
others may take ; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me 
death !" 

II. By Structure. 

230, According to their structure sentences are classified 
as : I. Simple. II. Complex. III. Compoutstd. 

231. A simple sentence consists of one independent prop- 
osition. 

It must not be supposed that a simple sentence necessarily con- 
sists of only a few words. No matter how many modifications 
of the subject, or of the predicate, or of both, there may be, if 
a sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, it is a 
simple sentence. "Birds fly" is a simple sentence containing 
two words. The following is also a simple sentence, though 
contaiuing sixty-one words : 

"About fourscore years ago there used to be seen sauntering on the 
pleasant terraces of Sans Souci, for a short time in the after- 
noon, or driving in a rapid, business manner on the open roads, 
or through the scraggy woods and avenues of that intricate, 
amphibious Potsdam region, a highly interesting, lean, little old 
man, of alert, though slightly stooping figure." * 

232, A complex sentence consists of one independent (or 
principal) proposition and one or more clauses ; thus — 

1. When morning dawned [clause] all fears were dispelled 
[principal proposition]. 

2. We kxow kot [principal proposition] whence it comes [clause] 
or whither it goes [clause]. 

233. A compound sentence consists of two or more inde- 
pendent propositions: thus — 

[All fears were dispelled], and [we saw the land within a few 

leagues of us]. 
In compound sentences the members are merely put together {con 

and ponere), while in complex sentences they are woven together 

{con and plectere). 

* Carlyle : Frederick the Great. 



212 ANALYSIS. 

III. Subject and Predicate. 

234. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or one 
of its equivalents. 

The equivalents of a noun are — 

1. A. pronoun: as — 
She is all the world to nie. 

2. An adjective used substantively : as — 
The weary are at rest. 

3. An infinitive or a gerund : as — 

1. To he contents his natural desire. 

2. Seeing is believing. 

4. A substantive phrase : as — 

1. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 

2. Learning a language well is difficult. 

5. A substantive clause : as — 

That the earth is spherical was not known by the Greeks. 

235. The predicate consists of a predicate verb (word or 
words) ; but in order to make a significant statement it is 
often necessary to employ a complement. 

236. Complements. — Transitive verbs require an object 
as complement : as — 

Columbus discovered [pred. verb] America [object]. 

The object of a transitive verb may be any of the equivalents 
of the noun : thus — 

1. We commend her. 

2. Men honor the brave. 

3. Boys like to skate. 

4. They stopped reciting their lessons. 

5. Talleyrand said that the purpose of language is to conceal thought. 



ADJUNCTS OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 213 

237. Incomplete intransitive and passive verbs may take 
as a complement a predicate nominative or a predicate 
adjective: as — 

1. Knowledge is 'power. 

2. The mountains are high. 

3. She seems better. 

4. Socrates was thought wise. 

The complement of an intransitive or a passive verb may be one 
of the equivalents of the noun or of the adjective : thus — 

1. His intention was to go. 

2. The probability is that he has gone to Europe. 

3. That book seems of little value. 

238, Certain transitive verbs (see Syntax, p. 168), take a 
double object, one direct and the other attributive ; or they 
may take, in addition to the direct object, an adjective com- 
plement modifying the object : as — 

lc We call the boy John. 

2. We hold the man accountable. 



IV. Adjuncts of the Subject and Predicate. 

239. Of the Subject. — Since the subject is always a noun 
or its equivalent, and since whatever words modify a noun 
are adjective in office, the adjuncts of the subject must be 
adjective elements. 

240. An adjunct of the subject may be an adjective ele- 
ment of the first, the second, or the third degree : that is, it 
may be an adjective word, phrase, or clause. 

I. As a word an adjective element may be — 

lc An adjective : as— 

Kind hearts are more than coronets. 



214 ANALYSIS. 

2. An appositive noun : as — 

Newton, the philosopher, discovered the law of gravitation. 

3. A possessive noun: as — 

Children's voices should be dear to a mother's ear. 

II. An adjective phrase may be in form prepositional or 
participial: thus — 

1. The thirst for fame is an infirmity of noble minds. 

2. The man, being injured by the fall, was taken to the hospital. 

III. An adjective clause is always introduced by a rela- 
tive pronoun or a relative adverb : thus — 

The man that hath no music in himself is fit for stratagems. 
The place where Moses was buried is unknown. 

241. The subject may be modified not only by one, but 
by any combination or number of combinations of adjective 
elements: thus — 

Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy that the world ever sato, 
and early united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess, 
happy in herself, and joyful in her future prospects, little antici- 
pated the fate which was so soon to overtake her. 

242. Adjective elements are used to modify not only the 
subject, but a noun in any part of a sentence. 

If the subject is an infinitive or a gerund, it may in its ^^-charac- 
ter take a complement or adverbial adjuncts, or both : as — 

1. To love one's enemtes is a Christian duty. 

2. Playing with fire is dangerous. 

243. Of the Predicate.— The predicate verb is modified 
by adverbial elements. 

244. An adverbial element may be an element of the 
first, second, or third degree. 



ADJUNCTS OF THE SUBJECT 4 AND PREDICATE. 215 

I. As a word, an adverbial element may be — 

1. An adverb: as — 
Leonidas died bravely. 

2. An indirect object : as — 

1. Give the man a seat. 

2. Give him a seat. 

3. An objective adverbial: as — 

1. Our friends have returned home. 

2. The book cost three dollars. 

4. An infinitive of purpose : as — 
She stoops to conquer. 

II. An adverbial phrase may be in form prepositional or 
participial: thus — 

1. Leonidas died with great bravery. 

2. He reads standing at his desk. 

III. An adverbial clause is always introduced by a con- 
junctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction : thus — 

1. The lawyers smiled that afternoon 
When he hummed in court an old love-tune. 

2. Fishes have no voice because they leave no lungs. 

245, The predicate verb may be modified by any com- 
bination or number of combinations of adverbial elements ; 
and an adverbial element may serve as an adjunct, not only 
of a verb, but of an adjective or an adverb. 

From what has been stated, it will be correctly inferred that a 
noun complement may receive any of the modifications of the 
noun, while an adjective complement may take as adjunct an ad- 
verbial element of any degree. 



216 ANALYSIS. 



CHAPTEK II. 

ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

I. Theory of the Simple Sentence. 

246. The simple sentence consists of a single proposition, 
and hence can contain but one finite verb. 

247. The simple subject of the simple sentence consists 
of a substantive element of the first or second degree ; that 
is, of a word or phrase equivalent to a noun. 

248. Its modifications.— The simple subject maybe mod- 
ified (or enlarged) by any adjective element of the first or 
second degree, or by any combination of adjective elements 
of those degrees. 

249. The simple predicate of the simple sentence always 
consists of some finite verb, either with or without a com- 
plement. 

250. Its modifications. —The simple predicate may be 
modified by any adverbial element of the first or second 
degree, or by any combination of adverbial elements of those 
degrees. 



II. Directions for Analysis. 

In analyzing a simple sentence — I. State the nature of 
the sentence (1) by structure ; (2) by use. 



NOTES ON ANALYSIS. 217 

II. Designate — 

1. The grammatical subject. 

2. The grammatical predicate (that is, the predicate verb). 

3. The modifications of the subject. 

4. The complement, when the verb is incomplete. 

5. The modifications, and the complement (if any) of the comple- 

ment, 

6. The modifications of the grammatical predicate. 

7. The logical predicate. 

When the grammatical subject or predicate has no adjuncts, it may be 
stated that "the subject (or predicate), grammatical and logical, is—" 



NOTES ON ANALYSIS. 

I. The order of a sentence may be direct or inverted ; and in resolv- 
ing a sentence — that is, in showing the elements that enter into its 
construction — it is proper to reduce it from the inverted to the direct 
form : thus — 

Inverted. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

~. j The glimmering landscape fades on the sight now; or, 

"( The glimmering landscape now fades on the sight. 
Inverted. Thee the voice, the dance obey. 
Direct. The voice, the dance obey thee. 
Inverted. Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare. 
Direct. Slow melting strains declare their queen's approach. 

II. In written analysis it will be found convenient to employ the 
following method of designating the degree of an element : 

s' = substantive icord : i. e., substantive element first degree. 
s" = substantive phrase: i. e., substantive element second degree. 
t"' = substantive clause : i. e., substantive element third degree. 
a' = adjective icord : i. e., adjective element first degree. 
a" = adjective phrase : i. e., adjective element second degree. 
a'" = adjective clause : i. e.. adjective element third degree. 
adv.' = adverbial uord : i. e., adverbial element first degree. 
adv." = adverbial phrase : i. e., adverbial element second degree. 
adv.'" z=z adverbial clause : i. e., adverbial element third degree. 

K 



218 ANALYSIS. 

Models for Oral Analysis. 

1. The hardy Laplander, clad in skms, boldly defies the 
severity of his arctic climate. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is 
" Laplander ;" the grammatical predicate, " defies." 

The grammatical subject is modified [or, enlarged] by "the" and 
"hardy," adjective words [or, adjective elements of the first degree], and 
by " clad in skins," an adjective phrase [or, adjective element of the sec- 
ond degree] — thus forming the logical subject, " the hardy Laplander, 
clad in skins." 

The predicate verb is completed by the object " severity," thus form- 
ing the complex predicate, " defies severity." The object is modified 
[or, enlarged] by " the," an adjective word [or, adjective element of the 
first degree], and by " of his arctic climate," an adjective phrase [or, 
adjective element of the second degree], t 

The grammatical predicate is modified [or, enlarged] by " boldly," 
an adverbial word [or, adverbial element of the first degree]. The logical 
predicate is " boldly defies the severity of his arctic climate." 

Note. — The alternate forms of expression given in brackets may be 
used if preferred ; and when the various synonymous technical terms 
are thoroughly understood, entire freedom of statement may advan- 
tageously be permitted. 



2. This misfortune will certainly make the poor man 
miserable for life. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is 
" misfortune ;" the grammatical predicate, " will make." 

The grammatical subject is modified by " this," an adjective word — 
thus forming the logical subject, "this misfortune." 

The simple predicate is completed by the object " man," and by the 
adjective complement "miserable" — thus forming the complex predi- 
cate, " will make man miserable." 

The object is modified by "the" and "poor," adjective words; the 
adjective complement is modified by " for life," an adverbial phrase. 



NOTES ON ANALYSIS. 219 

The grammatical predicate is modified by " certainly," an adverbial 
word. The logical predicate is " will certainly make the poor man 
miserable for life." 

3. The King of Spain ordered Fernando de Talavera, 

the prior of Prado, to assemble the most learned 
astronomers and cosmographers of the kingdom, to 
hold a conference with Columbus. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is 
M king/' and the grammatical predicate, " ordered." 

The grammatical subject is modified by "the," an adjective word, 
and by " of Spain," an adjective phrase — thus forming the logical sub- 
ject, " the King of Spain." 

The predicate verb is completed by the double object, " Fernando 
de Talavera, the prior of Prado," a substantive phrase, and by " to 
assemble the most learned astronomers . . . Columbus," a substantive 
phrase. The grammatical predicate is not modified. 

The first object, " Fernando . . . Prado," consists of " Fernando de 
Talavera," a substantive element of the first degree (complex), modified 
by "the prior of Prado," an adjective phrase. The second object, "to 
assemble . . . Columbus," consists of " to assemble the most learned 
astronomers and cosmographers of the kingdom," a substantive phrase, 
modified by " to hold a conference with Columbus," an adverbial phrase. 
The logical predicate is " ordered . . . Columbus." 

4. Why stand vje here idle f 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. The subject, grammatical 
and logical, is " we;" the grammatical predicate, " stand." 

The predicate verb is completed by the predicate adjective " idle " 
— thus forming the complex predicate, " stand idle." 

The grammatical predicate is modified by "here," an adverbial 
word. The logical predicate is " stand here idle." 

5. Be a hero in the strife. 

This is a simple imperative sentence. The subject, grammatical and 
logical, is thou or you understood ; the grammatical predicate, " be." 



220 ANALYSIS. 

The grammatical predicate is completed by " hero," a predicative 
nominative, which is modified by " a," an adjective word — thus form- 
ing the complex predicate, " be a hero." 

The grammatical predicate is modified by "in the strife," an ad- 
verbial phrase. The logical predicate is " be a hero in the strife." 

6. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds makes ill 
deeds done ! 

This is a simple exclamative sentence. The grammatical subject is 
" sight ;" the grammatical predicate, " makes." 

The grammatical subject is modified by " the," an adjective word, 
and u of means to do ill deeds," an adjective phrase. 

The simple predicate is completed by the object " deeds," and by 
"done," an adjective complement which modifies the object — thus 
forming the predicate, "makes deeds done." The object "deeds" is 
modified by " ill," an adjective word. The simple predicate is modi- 
fied by " how oft," an adverbial element of the first degree. The logic- 
al predicate is " makes ill deeds done how oft." 



Models for Written Analysis. 

1. Nighty sable goddess,from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre c?er a slumbering world. 

Grammatical subject " Night " (V). 

Grammatical predicate " stretches." 

Adjunct of subject ."sable goddess" (a'). 

Complement "sceptre" (objJ) 

Adjuncts of complement..." her" and "leaden" (a'). 

Adjuncts of predicate.. "now " and " forth " {adv.') ; " from her ebon 

throne," " in rayless majesty," and " o'er 
a slumbering world " (adv."). 



EXERCISES. 221 

2. Him the Almighty Power 

Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. 
With hideous ruin and cmibustion, down 
To bottomless perdition. 

Grammatical subject " Power " (V). 

Grammatical predicate " hurled." 

Adjuncts of subject "the" and "Almighty" (a'). 

Complement "him" (<%'.'). 

Adjuncts of complement.../' flaming from the ethereal sky" (a"). 

Adjuncts of predicate " headlong " (adv. f ), " with hideous ruin and 

combustion" (A"), " down to bottom- 
less perdition " (adv."). 



EXERCISE 51. 

i Analyze the following simple sentences: 

A. 

1. In unploughed Maine he sought the lumberer's gang. 

2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 

3. Stormed at with shot and shell, 
Boldly they rode and well. 

4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? 

5. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling waters of the lake. 

6. Tell all the world thy joy. 

7. Clad in a robe of everlasting snow, Mount Everest towers above all 

other mountain-peaks of the globe. 

8. Now upon Syria's land of roses 
Softly the light of eve reposes. 

9. Where are you going this summer? 

10. Be not like dumb, driven cattle ! 

11. The mournful tidings of the death of his son filled the proud heart of 

the old man with the keenest anguish. 

12. Forbid it, Almighty God ! 

13. How wonderful is sleep ! 

14. Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was an eminent 

English physician. 

15. When shall we be stronger? 

16. Vex not thou the poet's mind. 

17. Did they make him master ? 



222 ANALYSIS. 

18. What a world of happiness their harmony foretells ! 

19. Between it and the garden lies 

A league of grass, washed by a slow, broad stream. 

20. O, ever thus, from childhood's hour 
I've seen my fondest hopes decay. 

B. 

1. The master gave his scholars a lesson to learn.* 

2. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.f 

3. Will it be the next week, J or the next year?J 

4. I will give thee a silver pound to row us o'er the ferry. § 

5. Having ridden up to the spot, the enraged officer struck the unfortu- 

nate man dead || with a single blow of his sword. 

6. To reach Cathay, famed in the writings of Marco Polo,1f fired the imag* 

ination of the daring navigator. 

7. I saw a man with a sword.** 

8. He found all his wants suppliedft by the care of his friends. 

9. All but oneiX were killed. 

10. Music's golden tongue 
Flattered to tears§§ this aged man and poor.||[ 

11. The scholar did nothing but read.lffi 

12. He does not*** laugh. 

13. My mother gave mettt a letter to read.JtJ 

14. What did you come here for ?§§§ 

* u To learn," adjective adjunct of the object. 

t "Way," cognate objective. 

t "Week," "year," adverbial objectives equivalent to phrases. 

§ "To row," etc., adverbial phrase, modifier of predicate verb. 

| "Dead," adjective complement, adjunct of object. 

IT "Famed in the writings," etc., adjective phrase, modifier of complement 
of infinitive subject. 

** "With a sword," adjective phrase, modifier of object. 

ft "Supplied," etc., adjective complement, adjunct of object. 

XX " But one," adverbial phrase, modifier of predicate. 

§§ " To tears," adverbial phrase (of effect), modifier of predicate verb. 

il "Aged and poor," co-ordinate adjective adjuncts of object. 

ilH "But read"=but (except) to read, adverbial phrase, modifier of predi- 
cate verb. 

*** " Not" may either be considered a part of the simple predicate, or an 
adverbial modifier of it. 

ttt "Me," adverbial adjunct of predicate (indirect object). 

XXX "To read," adjective adjunct of the object. 

§§§ "For what," adverbial phrase, adjunct of predicate verb. 



THEORY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 223 



CHAPTEE in. 

ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

I. Theory of the Complex Sentence. 

251. — The simple sentence and the complex sentence 
agree in this, that each contains one, and only one, leading 
proposition ; they differ in this, that the complex sentence 
contains, in addition to the leading proposition, a subordinate 
one made by means of a clause. 

The complete thought expressed by means of a complex sentence 
does not necessarily differ from that expressed by a simple sen- 
tence, and a simple sentence may be converted into a complex 
sentence by expanding an element of the first or second degree 
into an element of the third degree : thus — 

Simple sentence At the close of the war (phrase), Washington 

retired to Mount Vernon. 
Complex sentence... When the war closed (clause), Washington 
retired to Mount Vernon. 

252. Elements, — The following are the principal points 
in regard to the elements of the complex sentence : 

I. The subject and the complement of a complex sentence 
may be a substantive word, phrase, or clause. 

II. A substantive element in any part of a complex sen- 
tence may be modified by an adjective element of any 
degree. 

III. The predicate verb in a complex sentence may be 
modified by an adverbial element of any degree. 

IV. An adjective element in any part of a complex sen- 
tence may be modified by an adverbial element of any 
degree. 



224 ANALYSTS. 

253. Nature of Clauses. — A clause in a complex sentence 
is substcmtive, adjective, or adverbial, according to its office : 
thus — 

1. That you cannot perform the task is evident — [substantive clause 
as subject], 

2. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls — [substantive clause as 
object]. 

3. You will never see the fruit of the trees which you are planting 
— [adjective clause modifying the noun " trees"]. 

4. He found the book where he left it — [adverbial clause modifying 
the verb "found"]. 

5. John is taller than his brother is — [adverbial clause modifying 
the adjective " taller"]. 

6. She behaves as well as was anticipated — [adverbial clause modi- 
fying the adverb "well"]. 

254. Connective. — A clause is introduced by a relative 
pronoun, a relative adverb, or a subordinate conjunction. 



NOTES ON CLAUSE -CONNECTIVES. 

I. The following classified table of connectives is given to aid the 
pupil in distinguishing clauses from principal members of a sentence. 

I Of Noun Clauses. \ L Fact ~ that ( con J-), what > wh ere, why, how, etc. 

( 2. Alternative— whether. . . or. 

(1. Person — who, that. 
2^Thm S -which,ihat,( S uck)... aS . 
6. Place — where, wherein. 
4. Time— when, whereat. 

I. Place. Where, whither, whence. 

II. Time. When, while, whenever, till, until. 
i 1. Likeness— as, as if. 

Ill Manner. •< 2. Comparison— as (much) as, than. 
( 3. Effect— (so) that. 

II. Reason — because, since, for. 
2. Purpose— (in order) that, lest 
3. Condition^/, unless. 
4. Concession — though. 

As both substantive and adjective clauses are introduced by who, 
when, where, etc., care should be taken to note the office of the clause 






111. Of Adverbial Clauses, 



DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 225 

before stating its class. Thus : " Tell me where he lives " (substantive 
clause); "This is the place where he lives" (adjective clause). An ad- 
jective clause must always have a substantive to which it is an adjunct. 

II. The conjunction that is frequently omitted before a substantive 
clause used as the object of a verb : as, M I fear he will not succeed." 
So also the relative pronoun that, when in the objective case, is often 
omitted : as, " I have found the book you want." 

III. A substantive clause introduced by the conjunction that is fre- 
quently found in apposition with a noun, and in such cases is to be 
treated as an adjective element of the third degree. Thus : " The re- 
port that he teas killed is untrue." 

IV. Adverbial clauses of comparison (introduced by as and than) 
are often highly elliptical — sometimes the verb being omitted, and 
sometimes both subject and verb; as, "He is as rich as Croesus [is 
rich] ;" u The teacher praised you more than [he praised] me." 

V. An interrogative proposition is sometimes used in such a way 
as to be equivalent to a conditional clause; as, u Is any merry [=if any 
is merry], let him sing psalms." 

VL "When a substantive clause forms the subject of a sentence, the 
anticipative subject it is often employed ; the substantive clause is 
then the real or logical subject : as, " It was clear that they were on the 
point of quarrelling " — ' 

It was clear 
that-th ey-were-on-the 
po in t-of-q ua rr tiling. 

VII. The adverbial connectives while, where, when, as, etc., are to be 
treated as elements of the clause (adverbial modifiers of the predicate) ; 
but subordinate conjunctions are merely introductory words, and form 
no part of the structure of the proposition, though they serve to render 
it dependent. 



II. Directions for Analysis. 

I. After stating the nature of the sentence, analyze the 
sentence as a w/tolc, taking up the principal proposition, 

K2 



226 ANALYSIS. 

and treating the dependent propositions (clauses) as if they 
were single words. In this integral analysis designate — 

1. The grammatical subject of the principal proposition. 

2. The grammatical predicate of the principal proposition. 

3. The modifiers of the subject. 

4. The complement of the predicate. 

5. The modifiers of the complement. 

6. The modifiers of the predicate. 

II. Analyze the clauses in their order, after the manner 
of the analysis for simple sentences. 

III, Mention the connective. 

Models for Oral Analysis. 

1. Before Time had touched his hair with silver, he 

had often gazed with wistful fondness towards that 

friendly shore on which Puritan huts were already 

beginning to cluster under the spreading shade of 

hickory and maple. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject, grammatical 
and logical, is " he;" the predicate is " had gazed," a verb of complete 
predication, and consequently taking no complement. 

The grammatical predicate is modified by " before Time had touched 
his hair with silver," an adverbial element of the third degree (or 
clause) ; by " often," an adverbial element of the first degree ; and 
by "with wistful fondness" and "towards that friendly shore," ad- 
verbial elements of the second degree: the noun "shore" is modified 
by " on which Puritan huts . . . maple," an adjective element of the 
third degree. 

Analysis of the Clauses. 

a. " {Before) Time had touched his hair with silver" is an adverbial 
clause, of which the subject, grammatical and logical, is " Time," and 
the grammatical predicate, " had touched." 

The predicate verb is completed by the object "hair," which is 
modified by the adjective element " his.' 7 



DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 227 

The grammatical predicate is modified by " with silver," an ad- 
verbial element of the second degree, thus forming the logical predi 
cate, " had touched his hair with silver.-' 

The connective is " before,'' an adverbial element. 

b. " (On which) Puritan huts were already beginning to cluster un- 
der the spreading shade of hickory and maple" is an adjective clause, 
of which the grammatical subject is "huts," and the grammatical 
predicate " were beginning." 

The grammatical subject is modified by "Puritan," an adjective 
element of the first degree. 

The predicate verb is completed by the object "to cluster . . . 
maple," a substantive element of the second degree, consisting of the 
infinitive "to cluster," modified by "under the shade of hickory and 
maple," an adverbial element of the second degree. 

The grammatical predicate is modified by " already," an adverbial 
element of the first degree. The logical predicate is " had often gazed 
. . . maple." 

The connective is " on which," an adjective-phrase relative. 

2. The ocean is as deep as the mountains are high. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, the principal proposition 
being " the ocean is as deep," and the clause, " as the mountains are 
high." 

The grammatical subject is "ocean;" the grammatical predicate 
u is. ,? The grammatical subject is modified by the adjective word 
M the." The grammatical predicate is modified by the adverb " as," 
-and by the adverbial clause "as the mountains are high." 

Analysis of the Clause. 

"As the mountains are high." 

The logical subject is " the mountains ;" the grammatical predicate 
is " are," completed by "high," a predicate adjective, and modified by 
"as," an adverbial adjunct — thus forming the logical predicate, "as 
are high." 



228 ANALYSIS. 

Model for Written Analysis. 
A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a clas- 
sical education will probably undervalue it when he 
sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the 
study of a few ancient authors, ivhose works seem to 
have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of 
our own generation. 

Grammatical subject " reader." 

Grammatical predicate... "will undervalue." 

( a A"<V). 
Adjuncts of subject < " unacquainted with the real nature of a 

( classical education" {a"). 

Complement "it" (s'). 

Adjuncts of predicate " probably " {adv.'). 

["when he sees . . . generation" (adv.'")] A. 

Analysis of A. 
" (When) he sees . . . generation " (adv.'", adjunct of predicate). 

Grammatical subject " he." 

Grammatical predicate..." sees." 

Complement ["that so large a portion. . . generation" 

(*'")] B. 
Adjunct of predicate "when" (adv.'). 

Analysis of B. 
" (That) so large a portion . . . generation" ($'", obj. and pred. of A). 

Grammatical subject " portion." 

Grammatical predicate ..." is devoted." 

i" so large " (a'}. 
"a" (a'). 
"of time" (a"). 

Adjuncts of predicate "to the study of a few ancient authors 

(adv.") [whose works seem . . . genera- 
tion " (a"')] C. 



EXERCISES. 229 

Analysis of C. 
4i Whose works seem . . . generation n (a'", adjunct of u authors"). 

Grammatical subject " works." 

Grammatical predicate ..." seem." 

Adjuncts of subject " whose" (a'). 

Complement "to have" (a'). 

Complement of araipL... "bearing" (6-). 

/ " no " (a). 

) "direct" (a), 
Adjuncts of second compL <j H on the studies and dut i es f our genera- 
tion" (a"). 



1' 



EXERCISE 52. 

Analyze the following complex sentences : 

A. 

1. The rose that all are praising is not the rose for me. 

2. When we go forth in the moruing we lay a moulding hand upon our 

destiny. 

3. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, 
Lives Newton's deathless memory. 

4. The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but him had fled. 

5. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterwards became a distinguished 

statesman and philosopher, learned his trade in the printing-office oi 
his brother, who published a paper in Boston. 

6. He that fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

7. Go into Turkey, where the pachas will tell you that the Turkish govern- 

ment is the most perfect in the world. 

8. The Dutch florist who sells tulips for their weight in gold laughs at the 

antiquary who pays a great price for a rusty lamp. 

9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emoticfn of envy dies in 

me. 

10. We must not think the life of a man begins when he can feed himsel£ 

11. Tell me not in mournful numbers 
Life is but an empty dream ! 



230 ANALYSIS. 

12. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one peo- 
ple to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God en- 
title them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

B. 

1. I do not admire such books as he writes.* 

2. It is only by the fresh feelings of the heart that mankind can be very 

powerfully affected. t 

3. That man has been from time immemorial a right-handed animal is be- 

yond dispute. % 

4. He is proud that he is noble. § 

• 5. The boy ran so fast that I could not overtake him.J 

6. My Father is greater than LIT 

7. Oh ! ** that I knew where I might find him ! 

8. The older you become,ft the wiser you should be. 

9. His conduct is not such as I admire. %% 

10. SeTe, here is a bower 

Of eglantine with honeysuckles woven, 
Where not a spark§§ of prying light creeps in. 

11. The lamb thy riot doomed to bleed to-day, 
Had he||| thy reason, would he skip and play? 

12. 'Tislffl better to have loved and lost 
Than never to have loved at all. 



* "As he writes," adjective clause, adjunct of "books," and correlative 
with "such." 

t "That mankind . . . affected," substantive clause in apposition with "it." 
" Is"z=exists (complete verb). 

X "Beyond dispute" (a"), complement of "is." 

§ "That he is noble" (adv."'), adjunct of predicate (reason). 

|| "That I could . . . him" (adv.'"), modifier of adverb "fast." 

1" Supply am. 

** Supply a verb : as, I wish. 

tt "The older," etc. (adv.'"), modifying verb of principal clause, "should 
be." 

tt "As I admire" (a"'), complement and co-ordinate with "such." "As" 
has the office of a relative pronoun (s'), and is the object of "admire." 

§§ "Where not a spark," etc. (a'"), adjunct of " bower." 

HI "He," pleonastic subject; omit in analysis. 

Iflf "It " (in His), anticipative subject; logical subject, "to have loved and 
lost" 



THEORY OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 231 



CHAPTEE IV. 

ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

I. Theory of the Compound Sentence. 

255, The propositions in a compound sentence must be 
co-ordinate (that is, of the same rank) and connected by 
co-ordinate conjunctions, expressed or understood. 

256, Members, — The propositions in a compound sen- 
tence are called members. These may be two or more 
simple sentences, or a simple and one or more complex 
sentences, or any combination of simple and of complex 
sentences, or of both. 

I. Whatever the constituent elements of 'the members of a compound 
sentence may be, these members can noways be dependent on 
one another ; for equality of rank in its members is the test of a 
compound sentence. 

II. When a member of a compound sentence is a simple sentence, 
it may be called a simple member ; when a complex sentence, a 
complex member. 

257, Abridged Compounds, — When co-ordinate proposi- 
tions have the same subject or predicate (or even the same 
complement, or the same modifier of the subject or of the 
predicate verb), the common element may be omitted ; and 
in this case the compound sentence is called a contracted 
compound sentence. Thus — 

1. God sustains and [God] governs the world — [ellipsis of common 
subject]. 



232 ANALYSIS. 

2. He loved not wisely, but [he loved] too well — [ellipsis of com- 
mon predicate]. 

3. You advance slowly but [you advance] surely — [ellipsis of com- 
mon subject and predicate, " you advance "]. 

4. With every effort, with every breath, and with every motion — 
voluntary or involuntary — a part of the muscular substance be 
comes dead, separates from the living part, combines with the 
remaining portions of inhaled oxygen, and is removed. 

In this sentence are four predicates, having only one subject, but three dis- 
tinct modifications of these predicates. To express the entire meaning of the 
sentence in separate propositions, we should have first to repeat the subject 
with each predicate, making four simple sentences, and then to repeat each of 
those sentences with each of the modifications — thus making twelve proposi- 
tions. 

II. Method of Analysis. 

258. — As the members of a compound sentence are either 
simple or complex, the analysis of a compound sentence is 
accomplished by the analysis of its members, according to 
the models for the analysis of simple and of complex sen- 
tences. 

NOTES ON THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
I. The following table of the co-ordinative connectives may aid in 
distinguishing the special nature of the connection between two or 
among more than two members of a compound sentence. 

( And, also, likewise, again, besides. 
Copulative. . . 1 Moreover, further, furthermore. 

( Not only . . . but, then, too (following another word). 

( Either., .or. 
Disjunctive.. < Neither. . . nor, nor (in the sense of and not). 

( Otherwise, else. 

/ But, on the other hand, but then. 

\ Only, nevertheless, at the same time. 
Adversative.. < However, notwithstanding. 

) On the one hand, on the other hand, conversely. 

[ Yet, still, for all that. 

,' Therefore, thereupon, wherefore. 
Illative < Accordin ^) consequently. 

j Hence, whence, so then, and so. 

I For, thus. 



REVIEW EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 233 

H In regard to the co-ordinative conjunction, it is enough to state 
that it is a connective ; it does not enter into the construction of the 
members which it connects. 



REVIEW EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. Life is real. — Longfellow. 

2. The grave is not its goal.— Longfellow. 

3. If Hannibal had not wintered at Capua, by which circumstance his 

troops were enervated, but, on the contrary, after the battle of Can- 
nae, had proceeded to Rome, it is not improbable that the great city 
would have fallen. — Gibbon. 

4. Time but the impression deeper makes, 

As streams their channels deeper wear. — Burns, 

5. Gayly chattering to the clattering 

Of the brown nuts downward pattering 

Leap the squirrels red and gray. — Whittier. 

6. The long-remembered beggar was his guest. — Goldsmith. 

7. All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am 

now ready here to stake upon it ; and I leave off as I began, that, live 
or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. — Webster. 

8. The evil that men do lives after them ; 

The good is oft interred with their bones. — Shakspeare. 

9. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes.— Longfellow. 

10. In such a cause I grant 

An English poet's privilege to rant.— Pope. 

11. Hence loathed melancholy 
Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born, 
In Stygian cave forlorn, 

'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks and sights unholy. — Milton. 

12. We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen, but 

we confidently trust, and our expectation of the duration of our sys- 
tem of government rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of general 
knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric may 
be secure, as well against open violence and overthrow as against that 
slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. — Webster. 

13. If we confine our view to the globe we inhabit, it must be allowed that 

chemistry and geology are the two sciences which not only offer the 
fairest promise, but already contain the largest generalizations. — Buckle. 

14. Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. — Milton. 



234 ANALYSIS. 

15. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and 

stood 
In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood ?— Bryant. 

16. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 

A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. — Gray. 

17. Further observation and experience have given me a different idea of 

this feathered voluptuary, which I will venture to impart, for the 
benefit of my young readers who may regard him with the same un- 
qualified envy and admiration which I once indulged. — Washington 
Irving. 

18. All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see; 
All discord, harmony not understood ; 
All partial evil, universal good. — Pope. 

19. That moss-covered vessel I hail as a treasure ; 

For often, at noon, when returned from the field, 
I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, 
The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. — Woodworth. 

20. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. — Milton. 

21. On the cross beam under the Old South bell 
The nest of a pigeon is builded well. 

In summer and winter that bird is there, 
Out and in with the morning air. 
I love to see him track the street, 
With his wary eye and active feet ; 
And I often watch him as he springs, 
Circling the steeple with easy wings, 
Till across the dial his shade has passed, 
And the belfry edge is gained at last. — Willis. 

22. There is a land, of every land the pride, 

Beloved of heaven o'er all the world beside.— Montgomery. 

23. Now leave complaining and begin your tea.— Pope. 

24. This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlock 
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight 
Stand like Druids of old with voices sad and prophetic, 

Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. 

— Longfellow. 

25. On a sudden, open fly 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds 
The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder. — Milton. 

26. In her ear he whispers gayly, 

" If my heart by signs can tell, 
Maiden, I have watched thee daily, 
And I think thou lov'st me well. "—Tennyson, 



REVIEW EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 235 

27. We next hear of him, with myriads of his kind, banqueting among the 
reeds of the Delaware, and grown corpulent with good-feeding. He 
has changed his name in travelling. Boblincon no more — he is the 
reed-bird now, the much-sought-for titbit of Pennsylvania epicures, 
the rival in unlucky fame of the ortolan ! Wherever he goes, pop ! 
pop ! pop !— every rusty firelock in the country is blazing away. He 
eees his companions falling by thousands around him. Does he take 
warning and reform ? Alas! not he. Incorrigible epicure ! again he 
wings his flight. The rice swamps of the South invite him. He gorges 
himself among them almost to bursting; he can scarcely fly for cor- 
pulency. He has once more changed his name, and is now the famous 
rice-bird of the Carolinas. Last stage of his career : behold him spit- 
ted, with dozens of his corpulent companions, and served up, a vaunted 
dish, on the table of 6ome Southern gastronome.— Washington Irving, 



APPENDIX. 



A. 

THE NOUN. 



I. NOTES ON NUMBER 

[Grammar, pages 11-14.] 

1. The Inflection -s, -es. — In Anglo-Saxon, or the oldest English, 
there were several plural suffixes, as, -as, -an, -a, -u : thus, stan-as, 
stones ; steorr-an, stars ; hand-a, hands ; lim-ii, limbs. After the conquest 
of England by the Norman French in the 11th century, most of these 
terminations gradually dropped out of the language, and -as, changed 
to -es, and in many cases to -s, became the ordinary sign of plurality. 
Hence our plural inflection -s is a shortened form of the Anglo-Saxon 
-as ; thus the plural of smith was first smith-as, then smith-es, and 
finally smiths. 

2. Older Inflections. — Though we are in the habit of speaking 
of the plural in -s or -es as the regular plural, it should not be forgot- 
ten that there were, in early English, various other inflections of the 
plural which were quite as much used as -es, and which were therefore 
quite as regular. Thus — 

Ox, plural oxen (Anglo-Saxon oxa, plural ox-an), furnishes an example 
of one of the older and very common modes of forming the plural, 
namely, by the suffix -an, afterwards changed to -en. 

Child takes the plural form children. The Anglo-Saxon plural was 
childru : this became first childre (or child er), and then children, so that 
it appears to be a double plural = childr[u) -\~ en. 

Brethren (plural of brother) is an instance of the use of the suffix 
•en, together with a radical change. 

3. False Plurals. — The s in alms, riches, and eaves is not a sign 



238 APPENDIX. 

of the plural ; but these words, though really singulars, are almost al- 
ways treated as plurals. 

Alms is a shortened form of the Anglo-Saxon celmesse, a singular noun. 

Riches is derived from the French richesse, a singular noun. 

Eaves is the modern spelling of the Old-English efese (or yfes), a 
singular noun. 



n. NOTES ON GENDER. 

[Grammar, pages 16-19.] 

1. Historical. — It has been seen that in Anglo-Saxon nouns were 
classified as to gender, not by the sex of the object, but by the termina- 
tion of the noun, as in Latin and Greek — that is, they had grammatical 
gender. Thus, nouns ending in -dom (as /?mfom:= freedom) were mas- 
culine; those ending in -ling* (as gretung-= greeting) were feminine s 
while many ending in -en (as m^^?z=maiden) were neuter. During 
this early period of our language the articles, adjectives, and adjective 
pronouns had distinctive terminations of gender, and were required (as 
is the case in Latin, Greek, French, and German) to agree in gender 
with the nouns to which they belonged. 

2. Old Feminines.— The suffix -ster (Anglo-Saxon -estre) was the 
feminine inflection corresponding to the masculine ending -er (or 
■ere) : thus, ocec-ere (a male baker), bcec-estre (a female baker) ; so 
eang-ere, sing-er ; sang-estre, a female singer. The substitution of the 
Norman - French -ess for the Anglo-Saxon -ster occurred about the 
14th century. 

Spinster (an unmarried woman) is an instance of the preservation 
of this Anglo-Saxon feminine suffix ; for spinster originally meant a 
female spinn-er. After a time -ster ceased to be felt as a feminine end- 
ing, and merely denoted one who ; indeed, it often denoted the mascu- 
line gender, as tapster; and now it is used principally as a suffix im- 
plying diminutiveness or some degree of depreciation, as in punster, 
youngster. 

Songstress (feminine of singer) is an example of a double termination 
of the feminine gen6\er=song-\-str-{-ess, the French suffix -ess being ap- 
pended to songster when the Anglo-Saxon suffix -ster had ceased to 
denote the feminine gender. 

Tixen (Old English fyx-en, the feminine of fox) is the solitary in- 
stance now remaining of the use of the once common feminine suffix -en. 

3. Masculine from Feminine. — As a rule, the feminine is formed 
from the masculine ; but the reverse is the case in the following words ; 



THE NOUN. 239 

Widower: in Old English, widow was both masculine and fem- 
inine ; later, it was feminine only ; finally, -er was added to denote the 
masculine. 

Bridegroom is formed from bride-\- Old-English guma, a man. 

Gander is derived from gans, a goose. 



HI. NOTES ON CASE. 

[Grammar, pages 20-22.] 

1. Historical. — In the ancient languages — Latin, Greek, etc. — many 
inflections were used to denote the various relations of nouns to other 
words ; and these several inflected forms were called cases. The Latin 
language had changes of form to express — 

The subject of a verb— the nominative case : as, urb-s, a city. 

The object of a verb— the accusative case : as, arb-em, a city. 

The indirect object — the dative case : as, urb-i, for or to a city. 

Adverbial relations — the ablative case : as, urb-e, from, with, or by 
a city. 

Specification or limitation — the genitive case (corresponding to our 
possessive) : as, urb-is, a city's. 

The term case (casus) literally means any form that " happens to oc- 
cur" — any relation that befalls a noun. The old grammarians illus- 
trated the changes of case by the following diagram: 

The vertical line represented the nominative 
case (called casus rectus, or upright case). If this 
line, moving on a hinge at x, were to fcdl or be 
bent downward, it would assume the various oblique 
positions marked G, D, etc., to express the six Latin 
cases, the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, 
vocative, and ablative. 

The diagram gives origin to the terms decline, 
declension (from de, down, and clinere, to bend), the upright line being 
bent downward; and inflect, inflection (from in, into, and fleeter e, to 
bend). 

2. Early English Cases. — English, in its earliest or Anglo-Saxon 
stage, was much fuller in its case-forms than is our modern English. 
Nouns had then five cases, answering to the nominative, genitive, da- 
tive, accusative, and ablative of Latin — though there were not always 
distinct forms for all these cases. The following table exhibits the 
inflections of the noun man in Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and English. 




240 APPENDIX. 

Latin. Anglo-Saxon. English. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 6INGULAR, 

Nominative Case... homo man man 

Genitive homin-is mann-^s man's 

Dative homin-i m^n man 

Accusative homin-m man man 

Vocative homo man man 

Ablative homin-6 men man 

PLURAL. PLURAL. PLURAL. 

Nominative homin-es men men 

Genitive homin-sm mann-a men's 

Dative homin-ibus raann-wm men 

Accusative homin-es men men 

Vocative homin-es men men 

Ablative homin-Jbics mann-wm men 

It will be seen from this table that, while the Anglo-Saxon had a 
less elaborate apparatus of case-endings than the Latin, modern English 
has still fewer inflections than the Anglo-Saxon had — that, in fact, it 
has lost all the case-forms except the genitive (possessive). 

3. Use of -'s. — The general use of the apostrophe to mark the elision 
of the e in the possessive singular is comparatively modern, and first 
became common about the end of the 17th century. Milton (died 
1674) did not use this mark. The probable reason of its employment 
was to distinguish the possessive singular from the nominative plural : 
for example, to distinguish birdes (possessive singular) from birdes 
(nominative plural). 

4. Possessive Plural. — The same explanation does not apply to the 
use of the apostrophe after the s in the possessive plural. The apos- 
trophe here does not mark any elision, because no vowel has been 
dropped. The use of this conventional sign began about the 17th 
century, through the notion that the s (as in boys) was necessarily the 
suffix of the nominative plural, though in reality it was quite as much 
the suffix of the possessive plural. The use of the apostrophe after the 
s in the plural is therefore arbitrary and meaningless ; still it is a con- 
venient mode of marking case-use. 



THE PRONOUN. 



241 



B. 

THE PRONOUN. 

[Grammar, pages 2S-32.] 

1. The personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon were thus declined :* 



BINGULAB. 

Nom..Ic =1, 
Gen. . .??ii?i=mine, 
Bat. . .me =(to) me, 
Ace. .me =me; 



First Person. 

PLUBAL. 



we =we. 
ure=our. 
us =(to) us. 
us =us. 



Second Person. 

SLNGULAB. PLUBAL. 

thu =thou, ge =ye. 

thm= thine, eower =you.r. 

the =(to) thee, eow =(to) you, 

the =thee; eow =you. 



Third Person (or Demonstrative). 

SINGULAR. 



MASCULINE. 

Kom . . he =he, 
Gen. ..his =his, 
Dat.. .hi?n=(to) him, 
Ace. . .hi?ie=him; 



heo =she, 
hire^her, 
hire=(to) her, 
7*^ =her; 



hit =it. 
Ais =(its). 
him=(to) it. 
#££ =it. 



PLURAL. 
MA6C, F£M., NEUT. 

Ai =they. 
hira=z their. 
ftim=(to) them. 
7it# =them. 



2. My, thine, etc. — The forms my, thy are shortened forms of mine, 
thine. 

3. Its. — The possessive form its is a word of comparatively recent 
introduction (about 1640). It is not found in the English Bible (King 
James's version, published 1611). The place of its was filled by his, 
which was the possessive case of hit (it) as well as of he. 

4. Him. — Him was originally the dative case, the accusative (ob- 
jective) being hine; but this latter form was replaced by him as early 
as the 14th century. The original dative force of him still survives in 
our modern use of it as indirect object : as in " Give me [=to me] the 
book." Also in u rethinks" [=it appears to me]; "woe is me" [=to 
me]. 

5. The relative and interrogative pronouns in Anglo-Saxon were 
thus declined: 



* It should be remarked that the Anglo-Saxon pronouns of the first and 
second persons had, in addition to the singular and plural numbers, a dual 
number (as, iotf=we two ; git=ye two); but as these forms have wholly disap- 
peared, it is needless to give their declension. 



242 







APPENDIX. 








Singular. 




Plural, 




M ABO, , 


FEM. 


NEUT. MABO., NEDT. 


Nom. 


.hwa 


=who, 


hwaet =what. 


hwa 


Gen.. 


..hwaes 


=whose, 


hwaes = whose. 


hwaes 


Bat.. 
Ace. 


.hwam 
.hwone 


[ =whom, 


j hwam . 

( hwaet =what. 


hwam 
hwone 


AM... 


..hwi 


> 


hwi =why. 


hwy 



6. Whose (hwaes), as will be observed, was the possessive both of 
who (hwa) and of what (hwaet). Which is a compound of wh (in who 
and what) and lie, like ; hence—who-Mke or what-UJce. The adverb why 
arose from the ablative case of who, what, and literally means for what 
reason t or, oy what cause ? 



C. 

THE VERB. 



I. NOTES ON THE PARADIGM. 

[Grammar, pages 71-74.] 

1. The paradigm of the English verb given in this book (as exempli- 
fied in the conjugation of to love) is, substantially, that which from the 
time of Lindley Murray has been presented in most English grammars ; 
and (some slight differences in nomenclature excepted) it is that which 
appears in the most approved grammars now in use in this country. 

Though the received paradigm is not wholly satisfactory, it is 
probably as good as could be set forth, unless a radical change in the 
mode of conjugation were made. 

2. The difficulty in the way of a scientific arrangement of the forms 
of the English verb results from the fact that two questions are yet 
unsettled, to wit : 

(1.) Should or should not inflection be made the test in the scheme 
of conjugation for the in-letting our out-leaving of a verbal form ? 

(2.) If compound forms are to be admitted, how many shall have 
place in the paradigm? and how shall these forms be arranged by 
mood and tense ? 

If only the simple and the inflected forms are to have place in the 
conjugation of the verb (a view taken by many modern English writers 
on English grammar), the paradigm will be very brief. Thus, let a line 

( ) stand for the root form, and we have the following scheme of 

a regular verb ; 



THE VERB. 243 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL 

1. 1. 

2. st (or -est) 2. 

3. s (or -es) 3. 

INDICATIVE PAST. 

1. ed 1. ed 

2. ed + -st (or -est) 2. ed 

3. ed 3. ed 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

MW . i. — - 

2. (if) 2. 

3. (if) 3. ■ 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

1. ed 1. ed 

2. ed 2. ed 

3. -ed 3. -ed 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Gerund: ing 

Present Participle : ing 

Past Participle : ed 

Thus, confining the conjugation to forms simple and inflected,* it 
appears : 

(1.) That a verb may be parsed as in one or other of three moods and 
two tenses. 

(2.) That the sole inflections of the regular English verb, in both 
voices, are four, to wit : -st (or -est), -s (or -es), -ed, and -ing. 

3. As against the theory of restricting the mood and tense forms to 
the simple and inflected parts, and as showing that some compound 
forms should be admitted into the conjugation, the following con- 
siderations may be cited : 

(1.) Many of the compound tenses, or verb-phrases, express a mean- 

i ing not made up of the combined original meanings of their component 

parts, but a new meaning : so that the constituent elements of such 

phrases cannot properly be treated separately. Thus, in the sentence 

"The river mill overflow its banks to-morrow," 

* Id thus conjugating a verb, component parts of a tense-form or a mood- 
form are parsed separately. Thus — 

"He shall be called John." 

"Shall," verb transitive, indicative mood, present tense, third person sin- 
gular. 

"Be," verb intransitive, infinitive present. 

"Called," past participle of the verb to call 



244 APPENDIX. 

the verb-phrase " will overflow " (future tense) is made up of the third 
person singular of the verb to will, and the infinitive " [to] overflow." 
But the sense of the statement is not that the river wills or determines 
to overflow — the verb merely predicates the future action of overflow- 
ing.* So " I have written a letter " is resolvable into " I have [or 
possess] a letter written;" but that is not now the signification con- 
veyed by the sentence. 

The same argument applies to the compounds may, can, would, should, 
etc., with infinitives, forming the potential mood— a mood that some 
grammarians would exclude from the paradigm. It seems to be a 
sufficient ground for the admission of this mood into the conjugation 
of the English verb that these verb-phrases have meanings distinct 
from the signification of their elements, and that they denote modes of 
assertion corresponding to those which in inflected languages are ex- 
pressed by modifications of the verb-root. 

(2.) Many, perhaps all, of the verb inflections in those languages that 
exhibit the grammatical forms of the verb by means of suffixes were 
originally separate words, which afterwards coalesced with the root, 
just as we find in loved (=lovc-did). Thus the French aimerai (future 
tense) is composed of the infinitive aimer (to love), and ai (I have) = 
I have to love, that is, I shall love. If, then, we take* into consideration 
that the English auxiliaries have for the most part lost their original 
meaning as independent words, and become mere formative elements, 
and that our verb-phrases serve to express the various modes and con- 
ditions of assertion which in the classical languages are denoted by 
tense and mood inflections, there seems to be sufficient reason for 
giving these compound forms a place in the conjugation. 



II. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Explanation. — When a verb has a past or past participle, or both, 
of the regular conjugation, this fact is indicated by placing -ed after 
the form or forms. This -ed is to be suffixed to the root, care being 
taken to observe the rule of spelling for derivative words. 

When the -ed is in heavy type it indicates that the -ed form is 
preferable. 

The forms in italics are either out of use, seldom used, or not used 
by the best authors. 

* Mulligan : Structure of the English Language. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



245 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


abide 


abode 


abode 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, -ed 


awaked 


be or am 


was 


been 


bear (to bring forth) 


bore, bare 


born 


bear (to carry) 


bore, bare 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


belay 


belaid, -ed 


belaid, -ed 


bend 


bent, -ed 


bent, -ed 


bet 


bet, -ed 


bet, -ed 


bereave 


bereft 


bereft, -ed 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent, -ed 


blent, -ed 


bless 


blest, -ed 


blest, -ed 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built, -ed 


built, -ed 


burn 


burnt, -ed 


burnt, -ed 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy- 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught, -ed 


caught, -ed 


chide 


chid, chodt 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (to adhere) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


cleave (to split) 


clove, cleft, clave 


cleft, cloven 


climb 


climbed, clomb 


climbed 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clad, -ed 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 



246 


APPENDIX. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


crow 


crew, -ed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare (to venture) 


durst, -ed 


dared 


deal 


dealt, -ed 


dealt, -ed 


dig 


dug, -ed 


dug, -ed 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt, -ed 


dreamt, -ed 


dress 


drest, -ed 


drest, -ed 


drink 


drank, drunk 


drunk, drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, -ed 


dwelt, -ed 


eat 


ate, eat 


eaten, eat 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilt, -ed 


gilt, -ed 


gird 


girt, -ed 


girt, -ed 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grave 


graved 


graven, -ed 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang* 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, -ed 


hoven, -ed 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, -ed 



* Hang, to take life by hanging, is regular. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



247 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held, Jwlden 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, -ed 


knelt, -ed 


knit 


knit, -ed 


knit, -ed 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leap 


ISapt, -ed 


leapt, -ed 


learn 


learnt, -ed 


learnt, -ed 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie {to recline) 


lay 


lain 


light 


lit, -ed 


lit, -ed 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow 


mowed 


mown, -ed 


pass 


past, -ed 


past, -ed 


pay 


paid 


paid 


pen {to enclose) 


pent, -ed 


pent, -ed 


prove 


proved 


proven, -ed 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, -ed 


quit, -ed 


rap 


rapt, -ed 


rapt, -ed 


read 


r6ad 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, -ed 


run 


ran, run 


run 


saw 


sawed 


sawn, -ed 


say 


said 


said 



248 


APPENDIX. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PAETIOIPLR. 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


seethe 


sod, -ed 


sodden, -ed 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shape 


shaped 


shapm, -ed 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, -ed 


shear 


sheared, shore 


shorn, -ed 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone, -ed 


shone, -ed 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown, -ed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


slink 


slunk, slank 


slunk 


slit 


slit, -ed 


slit, -ed 


smell 


smelt, -ed 


smelt, -ed 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sow 


sowed 


sown, -ed 


speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


speed 


sped, -ed 


sped, -ed 


spell 


spelt, -ed 


spelt, -ed 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilt, -ed 


spilt, -ed 


spin 


spun, span 


spun 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


split 


split, -ed 


split, -ed 


spoil 


spoilt, -ed 


spoilt, -ed 


spread 


spread 


spread 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



249 



PSE8KKT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, -ed 


stove, -ed 


stay 


staid, -ed 


staid, -ed 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strow, strew 


strowed, strewed 


strown, strewn 


swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, -ed 


sweat, -ed 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, -ed 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, -ed 


- thriven, -ed 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, -ed 


woke, -ed 


wax 


waxed 


waxen, -cd 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


wed 


wed, -ed 


wed, -ed 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet, -ed 


wet, -ed 


1 whet 


whet, -ed 


whet, -ed 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound, -ed 


wound 


work 


wrought, -ed 


wrought, -ed 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 

i 


wrote, writ 

L2 


written 



250 APPENDIX. 



III. NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

1. The definition usually given of irregular verbs is founded on a 
negation — they do not form their past and past participle by the ad- 
dition of -ed to the root. But this class of verbs has also a positive 
characteristic : all verbs properly called irregular form (or once formed) 
their past tense by a modification of the root- vowel: as, write, wrote; 
hold, held ; do, did. Moreover, the past participle of all verbs of this 
class was originally formed by the addition of the suffix -en : as, give, 
giv-en; took, tak-en — though this inflection has now vanished from 
many verbs. 

2. Disguised Regulars,— For ordinary purposes, and for parsing, 
the common classification of verbs as regular or irregular, according as 
they do or do not form their past and past participle by adding -ed, is 
sufficient ; but the classification is in some respects superficial. For if 
we consider as not regular all verbs that do not form their past and 
past participle by the addition of -ed, a considerable number of verbs 
will be thrown out of the class of verbs "regular" which are not to 
be classified as " irregular verbs," taking as the test of irregularity the 
distinguishing marks given above : as, bless, blest ; build, built. 

Verbs of this kind, though usually classed as irregular, belong strictly 
speaking to the class of regular verbs, since the irregularities they pre- 
sent are merely a matter of euphony. These may be called disguised 
regulars* And among them we note the following varieties : 

(1.) In some verbs in which -ed makes no additional syllable, -t is 
substituted for -ed, especially in the past participle. This occurs in 
the following cases : 

(a) When -ed is sounded like t : as, bless, blessed (pronounced blest) ; 

past participle, blest. 
(&) After n or I: as, learn, (learned) learnt; dwell, dwelt. 

(2.) In some verbs whose root ends in d, preceded by I, n, or r, 
the final -d is simply changed to -t : as, build, (builded) built; send, 
sent. 

(3.) Some verbs shorten the root vowel and add -d or -t : as, flee, 

fled; feel, felt. 



* It may be a useful distinction, in speaking of verbs irregular in the ordi- 
nary sense, to designate them by a name adopted by many modern gramma- 
rians, namely, verbs of the old, or strong, conjugation, and to call verbs of the 
-ed class verbs of the new, or weak, conjugation. 



NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 251 

(4). Some verbs ending in d or t shorten the root vowel, but take no 
addition: as, feed, fed; lead, fed.* 

(5.) Some verbs ending in d or t make no change whatever; as, cut, 
cut, cut. 

Some verbs, such as — 

leave, left ; buy, bought ; 

lose, lost; sell^old; 

teach , taught ; tell, told ; 

and others of the like sort, though presenting marked departures from 
the type of the so-called regular verb, nevertheless belong originally to 
that conjugation, for the reason that the -ed inflection is, substantially, 
found in them. 

3. Strictly Irregular, — Verbs belonging, in the strict sense, to the 
irregular, old, or strong conjugation, have, in the text, been subdivided 
into the following classes : 

Class 1.— Root-vowel modified for past, and -en or -n added for participle : 
as — 

break broke broken 

Class 2. — Root-vowel modified for past, and no suffix in participle : as — 
begin began begun 

Class 3.— Regular in past ; irregular in participle : as — 

show showed shown 

4. Go — went — gone. — The past went is not formed from the root 
go, but is a contraction of wended, the past tense of the Anglo-Saxon 
verb wendan, to wend or go : thus, " He went his way"=He wended his 
way. 

5. Have — had — had, — The past had is a contraction of the Anglo- 
Saxon haefde or haefed (past tense of hdbban, to have), and hence is 
equivalent to haved ; accordingly, this verb belongs properly to the 
regular, or weak, conjugation. 

6. Make — made — made. — Made is a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon 
macode (=maked), and the past participle is a contracted form of ge- 
macod; so that "make" is originally a regular verb. 

7. Double forms. — In the list on pages 245-249 will be found a con- 
siderable number of verbs of double form (redundant verbs), that is, 

* Forms like lead, led are accounted for as follows : The Anglo-Saxon verb 
was lade (I lead), \edde (I led). As the Anglo-Saxon passed into modern Eng- 
j lish the final e ceased to be pronounced, and with it the additional d disap- 
, peared as useless. — Bain: English Grammar. 



252 APPENDIX. 

verbs that make their past and participle both regularly and irregu* 
larly: as — 

thrive, thrived, or throve, thrived, or thriven; 

dig, digged, or dug, digged, or dug. 

Of such pairs the irregular form is the older ; but in the progress of 
language there is a constant tendency for the regular to displace the 
irregular form. Many verbs that are now conjugated solely in the 
regular way were at first irregular; then a secondary (regular) form 
appeared ; and this at last wholly displaced the irregular form. Thus 
the now regular verb to heat had formerly Tiet for its past tense ; and 
to clothe had clad for its past tense, and yclad for its past participle. 

New verbs introduced into our language are always conjugated in. 
the regular manner : as, telegraph, telegraphed, telegraphed. 

8. Drank or drunk, etc. — A considerable number of verbs with 
two irregular forms of the past are found. The present tendency of 
the language is to give the preference to the forms drank, sprang, began, 
etc., for the past, and use drunk, sprung, begun, etc., solely as past par- 
ticiples. 



ORIGIN OF THE INFINITIVE WITH "TO." 

To is not found in Anglo-Saxon before the nominative and accusa- 
tive of the infinitive, and even in modern English it is not inserted 
after the following verbs : may, can, shall, will, dare, let, bid, make, must, 
see, hear, feel, do, need, and haw. The cause of its later appearance may 
be thus explained. In Anglo-Saxon the infinitive was declined as 

follows : 

Nominative and accusative, writ-an, to write. 

Dative, to writ-ann-e, for writing. 

When, in later times, the inflectional endings were lost, the origin 
of the separate forms write and to write was forgotten, and the prepo- 
sition was inaccurately applied to all cases of the infinitive. The da- 
tive to writ-ann-e, by the omission of the case-ending, appears as to 
writ-an, and the nominative and accusative writ-an, in consequence of 
this accidental resemblance, improperly received the preposition to. 

The nominative and accusative writ-aW afterwards assumed the 
forms writ-en, writ-in, and finally writ-ing, and thus arose the form 
called the gerund. Hence the identity of meaning in writing and to 
write. 



INDEX. 



[£y The numbers indicate the pages.] 



i tt A," article, origin of, 36, or "an," 
j use of, 36, 37. 

Abbreviated parsing, method of, 127- 
i 129. 
. Absolute construction, rule for, 141. 

Abstract noun, definition of, 8. 

u A-building," explanation of, 77. 

" Adieu," etymology of, 196. 

Adjective, definition of, 35; etymology 
of word, 35; iunction, 35; limiting, 
definition of, 36; numeral, 39; pro- 
nominal, 37-39; syntax of pronomi- 
nal, 154 ; qualifying, 40 ; proper, 40 ; 
participial, 40; comparison of, 41; 
parsing of, 113; uses of, 113-117; as 
complement, 170, 173; syntax of, 
153 ; misuse of, for adverb^ 157. 

Adjuncts, definition of, 205; of subject, 
213, 214. 

Adverb, definition of, 85 ; office of, 81 , 
classification of, 81 ; conjunctive, 85 ; 
modal, 86; derivation of, from pro- 
nouns, 88; uses of, 123; parsing of, 
123 ; syntax of, 175 ; position of, 175, 
176; misuse of, for adjective, 177. 
s Adverbial-objective, syntax of, 178; re- 
lation, 137, 141. 

"A hundred," explanation of, 158. 

14 Alas," etymology of, 196. 

"All," use of, 150. 

" Alms," number of, 240. 

"Amen," etymology of, 196. 

"Amends," number of, 13. 

"Among," use of, 188 

Analysis, definition of, 204; distin- 
guished from syntax, 139 ; of simple 
sentence, 216; written models of, 220- 
228; of complex sentence, 223-229; 
of compound sentence, 231. 

Anglo-Saxon declension of noun, 240; 
of pronouns, 241, 242. 



"An historical work," 37, note. 

"Annals," number of, 13. 

Antecedent, definition of, 31. 

"Any," etymology of, 37, note; use of, 
150. * 

Apposition, definition of, 102. 

Appositives, syntax of, 163. 

Articles, 36; definite, 36; indefinite, 
36 ; syntax of, 155, 156. 

"As," use of, marking apposition, 164 ; 
as a relative, 186. 

"Ask and teach," construction of, 170. 

Attributive, explanation of relation, 
113, 114; nature of, 137; rules of syn- 
tax for, 140. 

Auxiliary verbs, definition of, 50; con- 
jugation of, 67-71. 

" Best," etymology of, 43. 
"Better," etymology of, 43. 
"Between," use of, 188. 
"Brethren," formation of plural in, 

237 
" Bridegroom," etymology of, 239. 
"But," use of, as a relative, 186; as a 

preposition, 189. 

"Can," conjugation of, 70. 

Case, definition of, 20; nominative, 20; 
possessive, 20; objective, 20; histor- 
ical notes on, 239, ^40. 

Causative verbs, 50, note. 

"Children," formation of plural in, 
237. 

Clause, definition of, 207; kindsof,224; 
connectives of, 224. 

Cognative objective, 51. 

Collective noun, syntactical rule for, 
149. 

Common gender, 16. 

Common noun defined, 7. 



254 



INDEX. 



Comparison of adjectives denned, 41 ; 
comparative, 41 ; superlative, 42; for^ 
mation of degrees, 42, 43 ; irregular, 
43; adjectives incapable of, 44; in ad- 
verbs, 87. 

Complement, definition of, 49 ; of tran- 
sitive verb, 49, 212 ; of intransitive 
verb, 49, 172, 213 ; of infinitives, 173; 
of participles, 173. 

Complementary relation, 137 ; rules of 
syntax for, 140. 

Complex sentence, 211. 

Compound sentence, nature and analy- 
sis of, 231-233. 

Conjugation, definition of, 66 ; regular, 
66; irregular, (56; styles (forms) of 
progressive, 75, 76 ; emphatic, 78 ; in- 
terrogative, 78, 79 ; negative, 79. 

Conjunction, definition of, 93 ; classifi- 
cation of, 93 ; uses of, 125 ; syntax of, 
189-192; correlative, 191. 

Conjunctive adverb, 85. 

Connective relation, 137; rules of syn- 
tax for, 141. 

Connectives, definition of, 207. 

Co-ordinate conjunction, definition of, 
93. 

" Conscience' sake," use of apostrophe 
in, 21. 

Constructions, regular, 138; irregular, 
138. 

" Could," origin of, 70, note. 

Declarative sentence, 210. 

Declension, of noun, 21, 22; of pro- 
noun, 29. 

Defective verb, 79. 

Demonstrative adjective and pronoun, 
38. 

Distributive, adjective and pronoun, 38. 

"Do" (auxiliary), conjugation of, 69; in 
* ' How do you do V ' origin of, 69, note. 

"Doctress,"19. 

"Drank" or "drunk," distinction be- 
tween, 252. 

"During," explanation of, 92. 

"Each other," explanation of, 164. 

"Each," syntax of, 155. 

"Eaves," number of, 238. 

" -Ed," origin of, in verbs, 58, note. 

" Editress," 19. 

"Either" (pro.), possessive use of, 39; 

(conjunction), misuse of, 155. 
" Elder," " eldest," use of, 44. 
Element, principal , 205; subordinate, 

205; independent, 206; degree of, 

208; substantive, 208; adjective, 208; 

adverbial, 208. 



Ellipsis, definition of, 138. 

" -Es," origin of plural sign, 287. 

Etymology, definition of, 3. 

"Every," syntax of, 155. 

" Except," origin of, 92. 

Exclamative sentence, 210. 

Feminine gender, 16. 
" First two," use of, 158. 
Forms in -ing, notes on, 62-64. 
"Further" and "farther," distinction 
between, 44. 

" Gallows," number of, 13. 

"Gander," etymology of, 239. 

Gender, definition of, 16; masculine, 
16; feminine, 16; neuter, 16; how 
marked, 17; natural and grammati- 
cal, 17; use of, 17 ; suffix -ess, 18, 19; 
feminine innovations, 19. 

Genders, different, use of pronoun to 
represent, 184; philological notes 
on, 238, 239. 

Gerund, the, 52, 53 ; use of, 62 ; origin 
of, 63, note; compound, 62; tests of, 
63; uses of, 121 ; modification of, by 
possessive, 162 ; syntax of, 197, 

"Good-bye," etymology of, 196. 

Grammar, definition of, 1 ; English, 
divisions of, 2. 

Grammatical forms, definition of, 3; 
how denoted, 4; explanation of, 5; 
of noun, 11-23; of pronoun, 29; of 
verb, 53, 54. 

Idiom, definition of, 138. 

Imperative mood, definition of, 57 ; 
tenses of, 61 ; person in, 65. 

Imperative sentence, 210. 

Indefinites, adjective and pronoun, 38. 

Indicative mood, tenses of, 57, 58. 

Infinitive, definition of, 52 ; forms of, 
52; in -ing, 52, 62, 63, note; compound, 
62; uses of, 121; parsing of, 121 ; syn- 
tax of, 197; absolute, 197. 

Inflection, definition of, 4. 

Interjection, definition of, 95 ; parsing 
of, 126; rule of syntax for, 141, 196. 

Interrogative sentence, 210. 

Intransitive verb, definition of, 49 ; 
complement of, 172. 

Irregular verb, definition of, 66; con- 
jugation of, 75; classification of, 80; 
list of, 246-251. 

"Is being," remarks on, 77. 

"Is building" (passive), explanation 
of, 77. 

"It," use of, as anticipative subject, 
144. 



INDEX. 



255 



"Its," origin of, 243. 

Language, definition of, 1. 
11 Last,' ? etymology of, 44. 
"Like," misuse of, for as, 158. 

"Many a," explanation of, 158. 

Masculine gender, 16. 

"Methinks," explanation of, 80. 

Modal adverb, 86. 

Mode (see Mood). 

Mood, definition of, 55; number of 
moods, 55 ; indicative, 55 ; potential, 
56; subjunctive, 56; imperative, 57; 
use of, 198. 

Negatives, use of two, 178. 

"Neither," syntax of, 155. 

Neuter gender, 16. 

" News," number of, 13. 

"No," as responsive, 175. 

Nominative case, definition of, 20; in- 
dependent, 104, 141, 194; absolute, 
104, 194. 

"None," construction of, 150. 

4 * Notwithstanding, ' ' explanation of, 92. 

Noun, the, definition of, 6; tests of, 6; 
logical definition of, 6; classification 
of, 7; proper and common distin- 
guished^; proper, 7, 10; grammati- 
cal forms of, 11 ; abstract, 8, 10 ; 
common, 79 ; with plural only, 13 ; 
declension of, 21, 22; person in, 23; 
in -ing, 62; method of parsing, 98; 
uses of, 99-105; subject of verb, 99; 
possessive, 99; object, 100; indirect 
object, 101 ; in phrases, 101 ; in ap- 
position, 102 ; as predicate nomina- 
tive, 103; independent and absolute, 
104; objective adverbial, 105; equiv- 
alents of, in analysis, 212. 

Number, in nouns, 11-13 ; peculiarities 
of, 13; definition of, in verbs, 64; 
notes on, in nouns, 237. 

Numeral adjective, 39; cardinal, 39; 
ordinal, 40. 

Object, definition of, 49; of preposition, 
90; government of, by transitive verb, 
166; by verbals, 166"; direct and in- 
direct government of. 168; as com- 
plement of passive verb, 169 ; double 
after some verbs, 169 ; use of, after 
passive verbs, 171. 

Objective adverbial, 105, 178. 

Objective case, definition of, 20; cog- 
nate, 51; use of, denoting time, dis- 
tance, value, etc., 105, 178; govern- 
ment of, by preposition, 187, 188. 



"Odds," number of, 13. 

" O dear !" etymology of, 196. 

"O" and "oh," distinction between, 

196. 
" One another," explanation of, 164. 
"Only," use of, 177. 
"Other," declension of, 39. 
"Oxen," formation of plural in, 237. 

" Pains," number of, 13. 

Paradigm "to love," 71-74. 

Parsing, of nouns, 98-105; of pronouns, 
method of, 109, 110 ; of verbs, 118 ; 
of adjectives, 113-117 ; of infinitives, 
121 ; of participles, 122 ; of adverbs, 
123; of prepositions, 125; of interjec- 
tions, 126; of conjunctions, 126; ab- 
breviated, method of, 127-129. 

Participle, definition of, 53; simple, 53; 
compound or perfect, 62 ; in -ing, 63 ; 
uses of, 122; syntactical rule for, 153; 
syntax of, 198. 

Parts of speech, definition and enume- 
ration of, 3. 

Parts, principal, of verb, 66. 

Person, in nouns, 23 ; in pronouns, 28, 
29; in verbs, 64. 

Personal pronouns, 28, 29. 

Phrase, definition of, 207 ; preposi- 
tional, 207 ; participial, 207. 

Pleonasm defined, 139. 

Plural, of nouns, 11; foreign, 13; double 
forms, 13 ; Latin, 13, 14 ; Greek, 14. 

Possessive case, 20; rules for, 21; syn- 
tax of, 160; special rules for use 'of, 
161,162; origin of % 240. 

Potential mood, 56, 59, 60. 

Predicate nominative, syntax of, 172. 

Predicate, definition of, 205; grammat- 
ical, 206; logical, 206; adjuncts of, 
214, 215; "to," meaning of, 48. 

Predicative relation, 116, 117; adjec- 
tives in, 137; rule of syntax for, 
140. 

Preposition, definition of, 89; govern- 
ment of, 89 ; function of, 89 ; list of, 
90-92; use of, 124; parsing of, 125; 
syntax of, 187, 188. 

Principal parts, enumeration of, 66. 

Progressive form, 75, 76. 

Progressive passive, notes on, 77. 

Pronominal adjectives, 37-39. 

Pronoun, definition of, 28; classifica- 
tion of, 28; personal, 28; relative, 
29; declension, 29; compound, 30; 
(adjective), use of, 165; uses of, 108, 
109; (relative), use of, 109; case of, 
179 ; syntax of, 179. 

Pronouns (personal), order of arrange- 



256 



INDEX. 



ment of, 182; violations of syntax 

in use of, 183, 184. 
Proper names, plural of, 15. 
Proposition, definition of, 207. 

Qualifying adjectives, definition of, 40; 
onlce of, 35. 

Radical change, definition of, 4. 

Redundant verb, 80. 

Reflective verb, 51. 

Regular verb, definition of, 66. 

Relative pronoun, definition of, 31; use 

of, 109. 
"Riches," number of, 238. 
Root-infinitive, definition of, 53. 
Representative relation, 137, 141, 179. 
Responsives, 87. 
Rules of syntax, 140. 

'S, use of, 21 ; origin of, 240. 

"Save" (prep.), origin of, 92. 

Sentence, defined, 204; declarative, 
210; interrogative, 210 ; imperative, 
210; exclamative, 210 ; simple, defini- 
tion of, 211; analysis of, 216-220; 
complex, definition of, 211; com- 
pound, 211; complex, analysis of, 
223; theory of, 223. 

"Shall" and "will," use of, 199. 

Sheep, plural of, 12. 

Simple sentence, definition of, 211; 
analysis of, 216; oral models for, 
218-220. 

"Songstress," etymology of, 238. 

"Spinster," gender of, 238. 

"-Ster," explanation of suffix, 238. 

Subject of a verb, rule, 142; special 
rules, 143, 144; violations of rule, 
143; improper use of double, 151; 
definition of, 205 ; grammatical, 205; 
logical, 206 ; adjuncts of, 213, 214. 

Subjective relation, 137, 140. 

Subjunctive mood, 56, 60 ; syntax of, 
198. 

Subordinate conjunction, definition of, 
94. 

Substantive, 6. 

Suffix -ess, 18. 

Superlative degree, use of, 156. 

Syntax, definition of, 137 ; distinguish- 
ed from analysis, 139; rules of, 140. 

"Teach" and "ask," construction of, 

170. 
Tense, definition of, 57; rules for use 

of, 800. 



"Than," use of, 192. 

"Thanks/' number of, 13. 

" Than whom," use of, 193. 

" That " (relative), use of, 181, 182; po- 
sition of governing preposition, 185; 
(conjunction), use of, 192. 

"The" in "The more the merrier," 
explanation of, 88, 158. 

" There," pronominal use of, 144. 

"Tidings," number of, 13. 

"To be," conjugation of, 67, 68; 
sources of parts of, 67, note. 

" To love," conjugation of, 71-74. 

"To," omission of, before infinitive, 
197; origin of, with infinitive, 254. 

Transitive verb, 48, 166. 

" Two first," use of, 159. 

Unipersonal verb, 79. 

Verb, definition of, 48 ; distinguishing 
marks of, 48; transitive, 48; intran- 
sitive, 48; double use of as transi- 
tive and intransitive, 50; reflexive, 
51; defective, 79; unipersonal, 79; 
redundant, 80; method of parsing, 
118 ; agreement of, 145 ; violations of 
rule, 146, 147 ; special rules, 147-150 ; 
notes on paradigm, 244-246; list of 
irregular, 244-249. 

Verbal noun, 10. 

Verbals, definition of, 52. 

"Vixen," etymology of, 238. 

Voice, definition of, 54 ; active, 54 ; pas- 
sive, 54, 55. 

"Wages," number of, 13. 

"Wages of sin is death," explanation 
of construction, 150. 

"Waitress," 19. 

"Went," origin of, 251. 

" Wert," use of, 67, note. 

"What," mode of parsing of, 109 ; ori- 
gin of, 109, note. 

"Which, 7 ' declension of, 32; use of, 
181, 185. 

"Who," declension of, 32; use of, 181 

"Whose," use of, for neuter, 185. 

" Widower," how formed, 239. 

"Word," definition of, 1. 

"Whosoever," declension of, 32. 

"Why," origin of, 244. 

"Worse," etymology of, 44. 

' ' Worst, ' ' etymology of, 44. 

"Yes " 175. 

" You," use of, 31 ; for singular, 65. 



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